The Texan Herper: Reptilian

REPTILIAN

Discussion:

Reptiles are not quite the first class of vertebrate animals that excelled in the manufacturing of a shelled egg, but are the ones to bring it towards near perfection. This new egg on the block protected the contents from desiccation, so was now independent of water submersion that amphibians were and are bound to. The egg could be laid anywhere on land opening up vast new untouched frontiers for vertebrates. This revolutionary organism concept, relieved the need for an aquatic larval stage as well. Reptiles are fully formed when they hatch or are born.

Reptiles are basically characterized by possessing lungs for the inhaling and exhaling of air throughout all stages of life and also in having scales or scutes as an outer layer appended to and protecting the epidermal layers. Of course as just mentioned, they lay eggs, but species representing this class also retain eggs before hatching, give live birth and a handful do not necessarily have to have sex to lay viable eggs or give birth to offspring in a process known as parthenogenesis.

Reptiles, with a few exceptions are tetrapods, meaning that they are mobile due to four legs. Even most snakes have vestigial remnants of thigh bones, or even remnants of a pelvic girdle as found in the more primitive typhlopid blind snakes; a hold back from the tetrapod ancestor they evolved from.

Putting together the two main characteristics of reptilian development (amniote/tetrapod) you will see that they go hand-in-hand. The leathery porous but hard shelled reptilian egg possesses three extensive membranes during embryonic development known as the amnion, chorion and allantois. This type of egg always develops tetrapodal limbs onto the fetus bypassing the larval stage, which in turn negated metamorphosis. We call these animals amniotes, which includes reptiles as well as man. Snakes, even though they do not possess limbs are still true reptiles. Upon hatching or being born, snakes do not acquire external limbs due to the Hox gene expression. This, we will elaborate on later under the title 'Snakes'.

1. Tortoise hatchling (amniotic egg)

Amniote features due to the membrane functions gave allowance for respiration in the developing embryo and facilitated waste disposal by providing a reservoir. The membranes also assuaged the developing embryo's need for water by serving the forming kidneys and intestines to act as reserves for water retention.

All mammals, except for the monotremes do not lay eggs. This is due to further evolvement in the development of the placental line of reproduction. Still though, the amniotic egg structures may be found in the placenta of mammals.

Reptiles were not the first class of animals to possess amniotic development, so did not come directly from amphibians. That honor comes from creatures that possessed both amphibian and reptilian traits. One of these fossil creatures found is Casineria kiddi from the Lower Carboniferous period around 340 million years ago. Casinera was a small animal reaching a length of 15cm or 5.9in. It was a reptiliomorph that had reptilian osteological (skeletal) characteristics but still retained amphibian features. We know that it was an amniote, not because fossilized casineran eggs have been found, but rather due to the fact the paleontoloigcal finds were discovered in fairly dry environmental strata. In order for laid eggs to survive they had to be amniotic in dry terrain.

2. Hylonomus

The earliest true reptiles arrived around 315 million years ago (mya) and were outnumbered by the reptiliomorphs and overshadowed by larger amphibians such as the labyrinthodonts. One of these earliest of reptiles was Hylonomus lyelli. Being no more than 20cm/8in, this animal possessed an anklebone formed by the fusion of three bones; a unique trait found only in all fossil and living reptiles. Hylonomus was an insectivore chomping on the multitudes of insects, millipedes and snails that were around in vast numbers during this period. Hylonomus is Latin for 'forest mouse' and indeed that is where this creature resided, in successive forests and tree stumps of scale trees during the late Carboniferous.

The Carbonifeous was steamy during this period and it wasn't until the collapse of the Carboniferous rainforests 305 mya that saw reptile groups take off in diversity and populations. Of course the collapse of the rainforests devastated amphibian and non-amniote semi aquatic reptiliomorphs and there were mass extinctions of these groups during this time. This ushered in the end of the Carboniferous and the beginning of the Mesozoic 250 mya, known as the age of reptiles. Hence the reptile became the dominant tetrapod fauna and began to fill every environmental terrestrial niche and later back to the sea and into the air.

Having more room to roam terrestrially and not be limited to shorelines or swampy terrain, reptiles were able to modify diet in what new edible material was being offered. Devolving away from a strict insectivorous (eater of bugs) and piscivorous (eater of fish) diet, reptiles became the first true herbivores (eater of plants) and carnivores (eater of meat). In order to accommodate the harder food material to be firmly held, ripped, shredded and torn or masticated, the skull began to evolve for the facilitation of efficacious jaw muscles.

The earliest reptiles were anapsids in regards to the skull having holes in it only for the eyes nose and spinal chord. Soon afterwards, a group of anapsids split off from the rest and began evolving two branches of skull types. In addition to the eyes, nose and spinal chord holes one of the two branches known as synapsids evolved an additional hole known as the temporal fenestra just behind each eye. The other branch known as diapsids evolved two temporal fenestrae or openings behind each eye. These traits make the skull weigh less and allowed for more powerful jaw muscles by acting as anchors and more space for jaw muscles to perform their services.

3. A~anapsid B~synapsid C~diapsid

These three skull types evolved by reptiles continues to be part of the skeletal make-up of all reptiles except for the synapsid reptiles, for they further evolved into mammal-like reptiles that eventually gave way to mammals that still retain the reptilian synapsid skull. The anapsid and diapsid skull types are found in all modern day reptiles and are considered today the true reptiles. In addition, earlier diapsid reptiles too branched off giving rise to birds that still retain this same skull type. I would like to note here that turtles are the only representatives with an anapsid skull. There is a prevailing thought blowing in today's wind that turtles did not directly come from any anapsid extinct line, but rather came from a diapsid line that co-evolved into an anapsid skull type. This is a process known as convergent evolution.

The five general characteristics of reptiles are:

Lay or produce amniotic eggs
Reptile metabolism is ectothermic or poikiliothermic
Skin ends in scales/scutes
Utilize lungs for breathing throughout life
Have claws
Are tetrapods with 4 limbs or possess vestigal limb traits from tetrapod ancestors

For the class, Reptilia there are currently 4 extant orders represented by 30 families and some 8,225 species.

Classification:

I would like to forewarn all here that there are new forms of classifying and cladograms to group animals in. Since molecular genetics has come into play, classifications have had to be rearranged. But in being more of a traditionalist, I will stick to a more traditional form of nomenclature, but with DNA results in mind. Also, in hopes of not muddling up the line of modern day or extant reptiles, I'm first including in the classification, extinct groups in an abbreviated format. Further, I will include an extant classification with the inclusion of families. I truly hope this avoids confusion as it makes the list longer. So herein with, lies the classification of reptiles.

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You may come across a classification scheme that splits the Subclass Synapsida in to and replaced with Sauropsida (lizard faces) and Theropsida (beast faces). This classification is supplemental but it does not address the evolution of the skull types. However, it does distinguish outside the context of reptiles the differences between lizards and birds in utilizing Sauropsida and the differences between mammal-like reptiles and mammals under Theropsida.

Next is the extant classification down to the nomenclature of families.

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I know that classifications can become a boring event to view much less study; it's fatiguing. It is definitively an inclusion here, for I feel it conveys in outline form, not only the relationships between reptile species, but a further interrelationship that goes beyond the borders of reptiles and in doing so connects them with us. Humans possess the same parotid glands as reptiles and amphibians do, they're just utilized differently. Parotid glands are salivary glands. These glands are used in all vertebrates to initiate digestion, but further, toads and venomous snakes modified them for toxin and venom manufacture. This is just but one example out of untold many that demonstrates life's connections. Classifications simply outline those connective traits exponentially through genetic lineage and relationship distributions.

Sphenodonts:

Sphenodontia is primarily an extinct order with only one living genus and further, Sphenodontia contains only two living species. Besides the Sphenodontidae family including the only two living species, there are two other wholly extinct families, Gephyrosauridae and Pleurosauridae. Sphenodontidae had many genus members, but all are extinct except in the aforementioned genus Sphenodondontia. The two extant species are Sphenodon punctatus and the much rarer Sphenodon guntheri. There was a third tuatara that we know of, but is now extinct and classified as Sphenodon diversum from a well preserved fossil found in 1885.

Appearing lizard-like, tuataras were first put into the lizard rankings under the suborder Lacertilia. Far from being a lizard, a recent molecular study has shown that tuataras display one of the fastest rates of molecular evolution than exhibited in any other animal group. One physical result of this is though tuatara's sphenodontian ancestral fossil finds are only in strata concurrent to warm climates and environs, tuataras have the uncanny ability to adapt to cold weather conditions and thrive.

The original diapsid skull plan in extinct reptiles is preserved and retained in the tuatara with the upper jaw firmly attached to the skull. The tip of the upper jaw is beak-like separated from the remainder of the jaw by a notch. The tuatara possess a double row of upper teeth with the bottom row fitting neatly in between when the mouth is shut. The teeth are not separate entities, but are merely sharp extensions of the jaw bones jutting through the gums. When these wear down, there is no replacement, so older tuataras have to change their eating habits to a more accommodating softer diet.

Possessing not only reptilian features, tuataras also display amphibian traits and fish characteristics. The animal, which is unique among amniotes still retains a fish-like spine composed of hourglass shaped vertebrae, concave both before and after attachment to each vertebra. This spine structure is only normal in fish and certain amphibians, the tuatara is the only amniote to possess this.

1. Displaying uncinate process

Shared with crocodiles and some lizards, tuatara have gastralia which are rib-like bones and are not attached to the spine. Tuataras do possess true ribs though, represented as small projections with hooked bones found on the rears of each rib. This arrangement is called uncinate processes. This process is found in birds, but the tuatara is the only living tetrapod with fully developed and functional uncinate processes.

Unlike all other reptiles, male tuataras possess no penis. For mating purposes, once the female accepts him, the male embraces the female by walking stiff legged around her and presses his cloacal opening against hers, then releases sperm, thus inseminating her.

The most revealing characteristic of tuatara is the third eye or parietal eye located on the top of the head. Though only visible in hatchlings, for in four to six months it's covered over with opaque scales and pigmentation, the third eye still posseses a cornea, lens, retina and a degenerated optic nerve connection to the brain suggesting that it once was a true eye. It's function in adults is not clear, but it may be sensitive to ultraviolet light in determining lightness/darkness cycles as well as in manufacturing vitamin D.

In addition, the parietal eye is a component of the pineal complex connecting it to the pineal gland which functions in the manufacture of melatonin in tuataras during darkness. Though this pineal linked third eye in tuataras is unique, some salamanders have an overall pineal body they utilize as one big eye and use this condition to perceive polarized light, thus determining the position of the sun even under cloud cover aiding in navigation.

There is only one extant family and genus represented by two species.

1. Tuatara ~ S. punctactus

Northern Tuatara

Family: Spenodontidae

Genus: Sphenodon

Species: Sphenodon punctatus

Length: 80cm/31in

Weight: 1.3kg/2.9lb

Longevity: ~ 60 + yrs.

Name Origin: Sphenodon punctatus - sphenodon ~ Greek for wedged tooth; punctatus ~ Latin for spotted.

Distribution: Confined to 32 smaller offshore New Zealand islands. Reports of probable eggs on the main island of New Zealand is encouraging for reestablishment attempts on the mainland, where their former range was extirpated by man and introduced rats.

Description: Greenish brown with a spinal crest running from the head to tail which is larger in males; possess a photo receptive parietal eye dubbed the third eye; no eardrum or ear hole; eyes focus independently with a duplex retina; no subspecies.

Diet: Primarily an insectivore but will take spiders, frogs, lizards, bird eggs and small chicks; is cannibalistic and will take newly hatched tuataras and small juveniles. Tuatara teeth are not separate tissue set in a jawbone socket, but are merely spiny extensions from the jawbone. Over time the projecting spines wear down and are not replaced. In older specimens the diet must change to softer food to accommodate the worn bony projections.

Habits: Tuatara adults shed once a year where juveniles shed multiple times; juveniles are diurnal where adults are nocturnal, while all ages are terrestrial with ideal habitat in the forests and shores; reproduce very slowly and take 10-20 yrs. to reach maturity with main growth rates reaching upwards to 35 yrs.; hatchling sexes are determined by the prevalent temperature of the incubating eggs; being temperature dependent, sexes of hatchlings can be biases for overall population; tuataras can tolerate temperatures down to 7 degrees Centigrade or 45 degrees Fahrenheit; has a habit of burrowing and will take up shore bird burrows; both sexes are very territorial and will defend this territory with serious bites; once clamped down will not easily let go of a firm bite; can hold breath up to an hour under water; tuatara is a Maori word meaning 'spiny back.' This species is listed as threatened.

Vulnerable (2.3) IUCN

2. Tuatara ~ S. guntheri

Brothers Island Tuatara
Family: Sphenodontidae

Genus: Sphenodon

Species: Sphenodon guntheri

Length: 60cm/2ft

Weight: ♂~1kg/2lbs ♀~500g/1.10lbs
Longevity: 70+ yrs.

Name origin: Sphenodon guntheri - Greek for 'wedge toothed;' discovered by Albert Gunther

Distribution: Besides captive breeding programs, S. guntheri is naturally found only on one island known as Northern Brother Island off Cook Strait.

Discription: Has an overall reddish brown color with random lighter or darker spotting interspersed over neck, back and tail regions; heads are large compared to body; spinal crest runs from head to tail which is larger in males; possess a photo receptive parietal eye dubbed the third eye; no eardrum or ear hole; eyes focus independently with a duplex retina; no subspecies.

Diet: An insectivore but will take spiders, frogs, lizards, bird eggs and small chicks; is cannibalistic and will take newly hatched tuataras and small juveniles. Utilizes the ambush technique more than the northern tuatara, but still seeks and pursues prey.

Habits: Behavior is pretty much like the northern tuatara, but would like to include here that at 12-15 months, tuataras have the longest incubation cycle of any reptile from the time eggs are laid to hatching. Females will lay their clutch of eggs during spring season around the same time and area in dugout holes within communal nesting sites or rookeries. Upon approval of a final hole after a few trial diggings, the female will lay on average 7-10 eggs, but up to 19 aren't uncommon. Once laid, she will cover the eggs up and guard them until all the laying females have left the rookery grounds, whereupon she leaves as well. The young hatch as immediately fairly active and will scamper off into the underbrush. This reptile is listed as threatened.

Vulnerable (2.3) IUCN

3. Pleurosaur ~ P. goldfussi

Pleurosaur
Family: Pleurosauridae
Genus: Pleurosaurus
Species: Pleurosaurus goldfussi

Length: 60cm/2ft
Weight: 1.6kg/3.5lbs
Age: Late Jurassic 150mya

Name Origin: Pleurosaurus goldfussi - Greek for 'sideways lizard'; goldfussi from Greek mythology

Distribution: Fossil finds have been discovered in present day Bavaria, Germany and other western European spots from ancient dried up lake bed strata.

Description: Possessed a very long and sleek body plan with nostrils set way back on top of the snout just in front of the eyes. The snout was narrow and pointed while the tail was very streamlined and long. The legs were short and weak and most probably the hand phalanges were webbed. Pleurosaurus were one of the very few sphenodonts that lived an aquatic life and was so far removed from most of the reptilian lineage that its sole descendant is the tuatara; no subspecies.

Diet: Small fish, soft invertebrates and possibly small shore or beach animals.

Habits: The extinct pleurosaurs were well streamlined for swimming in fresh water and could either swim by body undulations or lateral whipping of the tail in sinusoidal fashion. The legs most probably weren't used for swimming, but held against the body. The legs could hold up and move the animal for short periods on shore.

Crocodilians:

The order, Crocodylia today is represented by the modern day crocodiles, alligators, caiman and gavials (gharials) that first appeared during the late Cretaceous approximately 85 mya. This group of animals though, come from a line of extinct forms going all the way back to the Triassic Period 220 mya, exhibiting a wide diversity in species during the whole of the Mesozoic Era.

Archosauria is a divisional group of diapsid amniote animals that includes modern day crocodilians, their closest living extant relatives, birds and all the extinct species of crocodilians, dinosaurs and pterosaurs. Archosaur shared characteristics (synapomorphy) pointing to a common ancestor are the fourth trochanter, a prominent femur ridge providing a large site on the femur for muscle attachment, antorbital and mandibular fenestrae present as respectively in front of the eyes and in the jaws and, with exception to secondarily toothless birds, possess teeth set in sockets.

1. Sarcosuchus skull compared to croc

The largest of the crocodilians are the extinct Deinosuchus, an alligator living in the late Cretaceous in what is now north America and Sarcosuchus, a crocodile that lived during the same period in what is now the African continent. Deinosuchus obtained a length up to 12m/40ft, while possessing a width of 1.9m/6.3ft. The extinct, but mature Sarcosuchus was just over forty feet at 12.2m/40.26ft and weighed up to 8000kg/8tons. Though Sarcosuchus dined on a lot of fish, both these crocodilians had rather large dinosaurs to feast on where today's crocodilians have much smaller mammals to prey on. So of course this alligator and crocodile could establish and maintain larger sizes.

Though the extant caiman of today are relatively small crocodilians, caiman in the extinct genus Purussaurus reached lengths up to 13m/43ft from the much later Miocene epoch 8 mya in what is now South America.

The smallest extant crocodilian is Cuvier's dwarf crocodile, Paleosuchus palpebrosus of South America obtaining a length no more than 1.5m/5ft in males and 1.2m/4ft in females, while the largest is the saltwater crocodile. The skin of one was documented to have come from a specimen that had obtained a length of 6.1 m/20ft. Analysis of a recent saltwater crocodile skull estimated the length of the animal to have been 6-6.6m/20-21ft.

Confined to warmer water regions of the world, there are three families, eight genera and twenty-one known species of extant crocodilians. Mature and larger species will look upon man as simply the next meal and attack, kill and consume. With the strongest biting force in the animal kingdom exceeding 34,000Kpa/5,000psi, any crocodilian over 2m/6.6ft can easily kill a human adult. Actually, with this capability in biting force accommodated with numerous conical pointed teeth, a crocodilian of any size or species is dangerous.

Crocodilian teeth are hollow inside, where a replacement is growing to replace the original once it has worn down or been removed. The mode of capturing prey is always with a hold on its prey utilizing the jaws and teeth, but different strategies are played out first before the derivative bite takes place.

From insects to one ton water buffalo, crocodilians will attack any animal. For aquatic prey, such as fish, turtles and even smaller crocodilians, the crocodilian will simply outswim and overtake its quarry with the mouth. Crocodilians memorize certain watering holes, certain land trails mammals use and even human campsites.

Also fancying land animals, a 5m/16.5ft long crocodile is very capable of lying in wait totally invisible in only 3cm/12.2in of muddy water, then will ambush a passing mammal or bird with surprising speed. Depending on the size of the prey, the crocodile will either drag it to the water to drown it if not already dead, or will go into a 'death throw' to knock the larger animal off balance while still on land. The death throw is, while holding onto the animal with its jaws will repeatedly twist around. They also do this to tear chunks from a victim that was too large to swallow in one gulp.

If a crocodile misses its intended victim on land with the initial surge, chances are the animal will get away to see another day, for crocodiles will not pursue its prey no more than .61m/2ft on land preferring instead to conserve energy due to a low stamina in energy consumption.

They are also scavengers and opportunists and will steal a kill from other predators. They possess a few taste buds but are not located on the tongue. Taste buds in crocodilians are located at the back of the throat. If they do not like the taste of something they swallowed, it's too late to spit it out.

The main anatomical feature that distinguishes the three crocodilian groups is the snout. Alligators have a broader more rounded snout. In the crocodiles it is narrower and more pointed, whereas the gavials or gharials display a very long extended snout that is sharply narrowed ending in a sprouted bulb in the males.

2. Crocodilian snouts: (L-R) Gharial, Alligator, Crocodile

Crocodilians are well armored with sculpted heads, a scaled body, protruding eyes and nostrils and with well muscled compressed tails, will use them for aquatic propulsion and in defense by whipping. The external ear is covered by a movable skin flap and the eyes are protected by a transparent nictitating membrane sometimes known as a third eyelid. Some birds and sharks also possess this so-called third eyelid. The front feet have five toes and the webbed hind feet have four toes. Scale arrangement, characteristics and alignment is distinctive enough to differentiate each species from another.

All crocodilians possess sensory pits all along the upper and lower jaws that are visible as tiny black pits. Each pit houses bundles of nerve fibers known as dermal pressure receptors (DPR) that are very sensitive to vibration and pressure differentials in surface water. DPRs act as an aid for hunting or detecting intruders in total darkness as the animals are primarily nocturnal. In addition, crocodiles have DPRs on every scale of the body that may further assist in chemical and salinity reception.

Females lay 20-80 elliptical eggs in a cavity previously dug in a sandbank or in vegetation mounds, in which she will guard. Parental care is also conducted by the female from responding to hatchling chirps and gingerly taking them into the mouth for transport to the water's edge. From there she will attend to and protect the hatchlings as chemically recognizing her brood for several weeks to five months. From then on, her hatchlings will disperse and be on their own.

Crocodilian and crocodylian are both used interchangeably, but the correct vernacular is crocodilian, which is more accurate with the latinization of the Greek word for pebble worm in reference to the texture and shape of these animals. Crocodylian came into play for consistency with the genus term Crocodylus and in the order term Crocodylia, where Crocodilia and Crocodylia are interchangeable.

Under the extant taxonomic order Crocodylia, there are three families, eight genera and with twenty-three species.

1. Alligator mississippiensis

American Alligator

Family: Alligatoridae

Genus: Alligator

Species: Alligator mississippiensis

Length: 4.85m/16ft confirmed record - 5.84m/19.20ft

Weight: 510kg/1200lbs

Longevity: 42.5 yrs. on average in wilds, 60+ yrs. in captivity

Name Origin: Alligator mississippiensis - Mississippi alligator; Spanish ~ el lagarto from Latin root ille lacerta ~ that lizard; mississippiensis is simply nomenclature for 'of Mississippi.'

2. Gator with deer

Distribution: Suitable habitat is found hugging the USA southeastern coastline all the way from North Carolina through Florida westward to eastern Texas and upwards into the extreme southeast corner of Oklahoma.; the highest populations are in Louisiana and Florida. The alligator (or, if using local colloquial euphemism...gator) prefers slow moving waters such as swamps, oxbow lakes and slower moving rivers and their tributaries. Are very dependent on wetlands and wetlands depend greatly on them by keeping rodent populations in check that might otherwise decimate wetland flora. Are freshwater reptiles, but have been known to venture into brackish water.

Description: In general has a rounded body, thick muscular limbs with 5 claws on the front legs and 4 on each hind limb; the head is broadened, the body armored with bony plates called osteoderms and possesses a very powerful tail capable enough to break bones when used in defense; tail is also used for propulsion in water and lunging on land; forelimbs end in 5 slightly webbed claws while hind limbs have 4; adult coloration is either black, brown, gray or olive green; thick mats of algae will green the animal while areas high in tannic acid from decaying leaves felled in water produce the darker colors; no matter the dorsal color, the ventral side is always a light creme; juveniles are yellow banded to aid in camouflage; a fair amount of specimens in the overall alligator population are missing an inhibited gene for melanin producing albinism; albino gators occur but are very rare in the wild, only because their chance of survival after hatching is extremely slim due to easy detection and sensitivity to the sun, for gators must bask to regulate body temperature; there are no subspecies.

Diet: An adult alligator is truly the apex predator of his ecological biome; adults will take and consume invertebrates, frogs, snakes, turtles, fish, birds and mammals from mice to adult deer and bears, other smaller alligators and the occasional human; will actively hunt on land; juveniles live on snails, other mollusk, larvae, insects, spiders and worms; the tail serves as a fat reservoir; gators can live over two years without eating.

3. American gator breathing thru ice

Habits: American alligators can adapt to cooler conditions better than any other crocodilian; are active in 7.2 °C/45 °F waters where those temperature ranges would kill the American alligators' cousin the American crocodile via unconsciousness then drowning; regions where icing occurs, gators will stick there snout out from the ice to breathe remaining unharmed; in fact, sustained high temperatures lead to increased metabolic cost, stunting growth rates and delaying maturity as is sometimes the case in Florida populations; alligators don't hibernate but become quiescent; gators swallow stones that remain in their gizzard (stomach) much like birds do and dinosaurs did to grind food during digestion; in addition the stones aid in buoyancy control; the swallowed stones are called gastroliths; water cruising with eyes and nostrils just above the surface is routine at 1.6 km/hr or 1.0 mph; faster rates of angulliforme modes in swimming can be maintained exceeding 10 km/hr or 6.25 mph; on land they either belly crawl or high walk keeping the body off the ground surface; in high walking they can gallop in bursts up to 32.19 km/hr or 20.00 mph for short distances; during dry seasons or drought, gators will dig out pits or wallows in sandbars or dried beds to retain water; locally these are known as gator holes and are beneficial to other wildlife; possessing no vocal cords, nonetheless gators make and emit many sounds from hatchling shriek peeps to adult male deep bellows; males bellow by sucking in air, holding it in their lungs then blowing it out in intermittent deep toned roars; bellowing is used in marking territoriality rights, but is most prevalent in courtship; during mating season, males will use infrasound by bellowing with only their head and tail above water; this bellowing position literally makes water directly above the back sprinkle due to infra sound bellowing; this is called the 'water dance'; when their are numerous males performing the 'water dance' as gathered during courtship, its known as the 'alligator dance'; after constructing beyond shoreline on land, an approximate .91 m/3ft tall by 1.8m/6ft wide nest of mud, leaves and twigs, females will lay from 20 up to 50 goose egg sized eggs; further, she covers eggs with decaying vegetation generating heat; ambient temperatures from the heat determines sex of hatchlings; alligator hatchlings from the same nest are called a pod; being one of the most vigilant females in reptile parental care, she guards the eggs, aids in hatching, takes the hatchlings to the water's edge, and guards her pod fiercely until they leave her five months later; 30 years ago alligator populations were so decimated it was thought they would not recover; due to conservative efforts and support, populations rebounded, recovered and are now stable.

1. Chinese alligator ~ A. sinensis

Chinese (Yangtze) Alligator

Family: Alligatoridae
Genus: Alligator
Species: Alligator sinensis

Length: Rarely exceeding 1.5m/5ft

Weight: Up to 44kg/100lbs

Longevity: Up to 70 yrs.

Name Origin: Alligator sinensis - Mississippi alligator; Spanish ~ el lagarto from Latin root ille lacerta ~ 'that lizard;' sinesis is Greek meaning 'of China.'

Distribution: Once ranged throughout much of China, but is now severely restricted to a few sites along the Yangtze River; one area containing the most specimens is in a protected preserve; prefers freshwater habitat in slow moving rivers & streams, swamps, ponds and lakes.

2. A. sinensis ~ juvenile profile

Description: Is much smaller but considerably similar to American alligator; differences are that the snout is upturned slightly and more tapered; 2 rows of bony ridges run the entire length of dorsum until converging on the tail merging as one; possesses bony plates on eyelids; besides the dorsal osteoderms, the ventral is also armored by ossified scales; teeth are adapted for crushing shells; exhibits slow growth with average 2 year olds barely reaching .61m/2.0ft; juvenile appearance is much like the American alligator but with fewer yellow banding; there are no subspecies.

Diet: Hunts chiefly at night time and will eat anything it can capture and small enough to swallow, but mainly subsists on aquatic mussels, snails, frogs and fish; it will aptly accept terrestrial rodents and other smaller mammals; unlike the American alligator will not attack larger animals; is not known to intentionally attack man.

Habits: Unlike the Amercan alligator, the Chinese alligator hibernates building elaborate burrows along shorelines; burrows lead to a den site where it will hibernate during winter months; den burrows average 22m/75ft in total length; will hibernate on average 6.5 months and does not eat during this period; mean temperature in a den burrow rarely drops below 10 °C/50 °F; the female builds a nest consisting of mud and decaying plant material, then lays a clutch of 10-50 eggs; dependent on incubation temperature, eggs hatch roughly in 70 days; is the world's rarest extant or living crocodilian; one of only two living alligators, this ol' gator's continuing existence appears grim; man is its only enemy; healthy population numbers have been decimated from damming and draining of its natural habitat, rat poisoning which in turn it eats, flesh being consumed by humans and organs used for medicinal purposes; estimated to be no more than 150 in the wild; since it is a prodigious breeder, hope still remains for our littlest alligator; the Chinese alligator is the basis for the mythological dragon in Chinese folklore.

Critically Endangered (2.3) IUCN

1. Paleosuchus palpebrosus

Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman
Family: Alligatoridae

Genus: Paleosuchus
Species: Paleosuchus palpebrosus

Length: ♂ ~ 1.6m/5.2ft ♀ ~ 1.2m/4ft

Weight: 6-7kg/13.2-15.4lbs

Longevity: Specifically unknown, best estimates 20-40 yrs.
Name Origin: Paleosuchus palpebrosus ~ Greek - palaios meaning 'ancient,' soukhos meaning 'crocodile;' palpebrosus derived from Latin meaning 'bony eyelid,' palpebra~eyelid, osus~full of.

Distribution: South America throughout the Amazonian River drainage system and basin comprising the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam & Venezuela; prefers densely forested faster flowing and cooler clear rivers & riverines, but is found also in flooded forests around lakes, in more open stretches of streams in Bolivia and in nutrient poor waters in northeastern Brazil & Venezuela; found in higher elevations reaching down to 6 °C/42.8 °F.

Description: Is the smallest extant crocodilian; first notable caiman feature is prominent highly ossified smooth flat head appearing as wearing a flattened helmet; the skull is set high with a concave snout ending as upturned; pronounced overlapping of the under jaw by the upper; has short backward curving teeth; body is heavily armored with scutes running down the back of the neck and along the back; has more osteoderms (bony plates) than any other crocodilian; double osteoderms are present in ventral scales; head is a chocolate reddish brown with body coloration a deep dark green; tail is marked with encircling light bands to tip; as in all crocodilians possesses cloacal & chin gular musk glands, but this caiman's musk is more odoriferous; musk, found in both sexes is chiefly composed chemically of sterols, triglycerides, fatty acids & steryl esters; Cuvier's dwarf caiman are ectotherms and heterotrophic; there are no subspecies.

Diet: Juveniles eat aquatic and shoreline insects, tadpoles, snails, small frogs & fish; In addition to juvenile menus, adults also eat anything else that is available and can be swallowed, such as bigger fish, small mammals & reptiles and a wider variety of insects; fish are the primary food item for adults and this caiman is considered a 'keystone species' in keeping its environment ecologically sound in culling fish and keeping fish populations in check, in particular piranha; most dangerous point in this caiman's life is still while in the egg; many omnivorous and carnivorous animals take eggs, juveniles are vulnerable to shore birds, snakes and other smaller carnivores; due to high ossification of scales, adults do not make good prey for swallowing, but boas, anacondas and jaguars do take their share.

Various prey taken by P. palpebrosus:

Habits: Exhibits diverse social behaviors; displays and conveys social messaging through sounds, postures, movements, touch and smell; grump vocalization is produced by expelling air through nostrils and defensive hissing where body is inflated to exaggerate size; besides vocal sounding, nonverbal sounds are produced by water surface head-slapping, tail-slapping and jaw clapping in showing a range of communication skills; typically is found alone, in pairs or small groups; small groups will migrate vast distances in rivers and across terrain to find less competitive environments; is primarily nocturnal hunting at night and may go inland far from

5. P. palpebrosus ~ basking

water source in search of small prey; males are territorial and defend living space, mates and nesting grounds from other males; when male's individual status is threatened will hold the head and body erect above water; snout structuring is geared for burrowing in which dug burrows are used for shelter; during daylight lays on bottom of water beds or basks in sunlight; peculiar basking habit, where in pairs or alone will elevate heads and close eyes; females and males build nest mounds of mud and vegetation; once female lays a clutch of 10-25 eggs, the male leaves while the female remains, aggressively defending and protecting the nest site; any animal approaching a nest with eggs, even humans, a

6. P. palpebrosus ~ resting

female will charge; once hatching begins the female may assist, but does not take the hatchlings to water as other crocodilian mothers do; hatchlings are heavily coated in a mucus film that is slower drying than in other crocodilian forms; once the mucoid layer has dried, the hatchlings will on their own accord enter the water; it is suggested the drying process is an anti-algal measure in protecting the hatchlings' softer more vulnerable skin from external growths; once in the water, juveniles are basically on their own as parental care at this stage has not been observed implying it doesn't occur or is rare.

1. Yacre caiman ~ Caiman yacare

Yacare Caiman
Family: Alligatoridae
Genus: Caiman
Species: Caiman yacare

Length: 2-2,5m/6.74-8.20ft; occasionally 3m/9.84ft.

Weight: 5.9kg/13lbs

Longevity: Estimations at 30-40 yrs.

Name Origin: Caiman yacare ~ Caiman is a Spanish term for 'crocodilian;' yacare refers to the regional term, 'jacare' used to describe an alligator.

Distribution: Central portion of South America from southwestern Brazil, northern Argentina, southeastern Bolivia into all of Paraguay; dense populations subsist in the Pantanal region of Brazil; fond of wetlands and lakes containing vegetative mats; also commonly found in faster flowing rivers; is the southern most caiman species.

2. C. yacare ~sub-juvenile

Description: Except for the flanks, scales have well developed osteoderms on rest of body, body coloration is dark to very dark green; head is a rust reddish brown mottled with darker spots more noticeable on throat; certain larger teeth of lower jaw may protrude through upper jaw; total body scheme is similar to Caiman crocodilus in which until recently, yacare caiman was considered a subspecies; no subspecies.

Diet: Main diet consists of fish and snails; will take snakes and small mammals while the larger specimen will prey on capybara; another name for this animal is the piranha caiman; one reason is for the aforementioned teeth protrubernce into the upper jaws, the other is for its propensity to preying on piranha; juveniles eat aquatic invertebrates, snails and terrestrial insects trapped in water; the anaconda and jaguar prey on this smaller crocodilian.

3. C. yacare ~ congregating

4. C. yacare ~ fishing

Habits: Groups have been observed roaming terrestrially far distances from water sources; in faster moving river waters, likes to go fishing by standing stationary with the mouth open against the current in anticipation of snapping up any fish moving with the current downstream; are communal and where there are healthy populations will aggregate in crowded conditions; though there are healthy populations, they have been extirpated from regions they once inhabited through decimation by human hunting; these caiman quickly reproduce year round peaking during the wet season; females become sexually mature around 10 yrs. of age at around 1m/3.3ft; female makes mounds of mud and vegetation to lay 21-35 eggs; she guards the nesting mound during egg incubation; intensive hunting by man has made the female more prone to abandon nesting area; with a diet that consists of large amounts of snails, they halt the spread of schistosomiasis by their digestive tract killing the trematode vector; this caiman is not yet considered endangered.

1. C. mindorensis

Philippine (Mindoro) Crocodile
Family: Crocodylidae

Genus: Crocodylus

Species: Crocodylus mindorensis

Length: Ave ~ 1.5m/5ft; males up to 3m/9.9ft

Weight: 15kg/33.10lbs

Longevity: Average & maximal lifespans unknown; estimation ~ 45-55 yrs

Name Origin: Crocodylus mindorensis - Greek ~ krokodeilos literally meaning 'pebble worm' referring to appearance; mendoro plus ensis is Latin rooted meaning 'belonging to;' mendorensis refers to, 'of Mendoro Island.'

Distribution: Has been eliminated and extirpated from most of historical range throughout the Philippine Islands; restricted to pockets in very small populations in the islands of Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro and Negro; a total wild population has been reported by National Geographic (Sept. 2011) to be only 250 specimens and this includes 50 captives that were released into the wilds from a conservatory breeding program in 2009; habitat preference for wetlands and marshes are all but gone from natural areas replaced by anthropomorphic activities of drainage, irrigation and agriculture; slaughter for hides have also played a part in the species decline along with natural and man egg predation playing a 30% role in egg loss; are now restricted to small riverine tributaries, littoral creeks, ponds and small lakes from sea level to higher elevations; has been observed swimming in saline water along the coast of Luzon moving from creek to creek through a sea route.

2. C. mindorensis ~ first breath

Description: Is a small freshwater crocodile endemic to the Philippines with a broader snout than normally found in most crocodiles; possesses thick bony plates on dorsal side; as is the usual case in crocodilians, female adults are smaller than males; coloration is normally a golden brown which darkens as animal ages; was originally considered to be a subspecies of C. porosus then recently to C. novaeguineae, but genetic studies confirm its own species status; there are no subspecies.

Diet: Consists mainly of fish, but feral pigs, snakes, civet cats and water and shore birds are also taken; juveniles rely on insects that frequent water such as dragonflies, also taken are snails, shrimp and small fish.

Habits: Appears to prefer basking in pairs; will vacate rivers during the wet season when river currents are high to smaller creeks; juvenile yearlings are very aggressive towards one another in developing territoriality, but aggression subsides in adults; appear to only mate within the month of January; a gravid female will build either a nest mound or nest hole; mounds are built under shady areas along bank shores composed of leaves, twigs, bamboo, stones and soil; hole nests are constructed in open areas along river and pond banks; during incubation of the 16-27 eggs, both male and female will keep watch over the nest and nest site; female though makes routine visits twice a day with one early in the morning and one in late afternoon; as in all crocodilians, sex determination of developing eggs is ambient temperature dependent; for this crocodile, 30-31 °C/86-87.8 °F produces all females; 33 °C/91.4 °F produces all males; Philippine crocodiles living in mountainous regions have access to deep pools with submerged limestone caves that they will hide in during perceived threats; in other range areas the crocodile utilizes dug burrows in sandy and clay river banks to hide in. This crocodile species is critically threatened.

Critically Endangered (2.3) IUCN

1. C. porosus ~ Saltwater crocodile

Saltwater Crocodile

Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus

Species: Crocodylus porosus

Length: Ave: 5m/16.5ft; Record recently captured in Bunawan, Philippines - 6.4m/21ft

Weight: Ave: 450kg/990lbs; Record recently captured in Bunawan, Philippines - 1,075kg/2,369lbs

Longevity: On average up to 70 yrs; some do reach 100+
Name Origin: Crocodylus porosus - Greek ~ krokodeilos literally meaning 'pebble worm' referring to appearance; porosus means 'full of callosities' from porosis (calosity) + Latin ~ osus (full of) referring to rugose surface of snout.

Distribution: Eastern India coastline, Southeast Asia, certain Indo-Pacific Islands, Papua New Guinea and Australia's northern coastline; prefer freshwater swamps and rivers during wet seasons and moving to brackish and salty estuaries during the drier periods; have been observed out at sea; sub-adults are forced out into minor tributaries and streams and into brackish or salt waters.

2. C. porosus ~ black specimen

Description: In terms of mass and girth is the largest extant reptile; the broader body is uncharacteristic to crocodiles and was once considered an alligator species due to body broadness; greatest sexual dimorphism of all crocodilians with females being much smaller; for an average population, male lengths are 4.1-5.5m/13-18ft, while typical female size range is 2.3-3.5m/8-11ft; as crocodiles go have a narrower snout than other crocodilians, but the most massive of crocodiles; coloration is typical gray or brown, but can darken to black; have a valve that seals off water from entering the throat when submerged, but cannot consume prey under water as swallowing would open the valve allowing water to enter; must eat either on land or head above water; when mouth is closed teeth protrude from upper and lower jaws; have the fewest scutes or scales on ventral (under or belly) side of all crocodilians; ridges prominent in adults run from eyes to nose; there are no subspecies.

3. Saltwater croc eating captured shark

Diet: juveniles take insects, crustaceans, amphibians, small reptiles and fish; adults as truly the apex predator will take anything that offers itself; but primarily subsists on smaller mammals, larger fish (including sharks) and shore birds; known prey includes turtles, wild boar, kangaroos, water buffalo, dingoes, large cat members, bats, monkeys and man; for as being prey, adults have no natural predators except man; juveniles are eaten by larger fish, raptorial birds, turtles and on occasion very hungry adult crocodiles; in their range, sub-adults may be taken by larger cats such as tigers and leopards; eggs are consumed by monitor lizards.

4. C. porosus ~ lunging

Habits: Saltwater crocodiles are aptly named, for they have been observed swimming hundreds of miles out at sea and this ability is probably the factor for their extensive range along varying geographical coastlines; other common names are estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile and the Aussies call them salties; are primarily nocturnal spending daytime basking in thermoregulating body temperature between 30-32 °C/ 84-89.6 °F; males are territorial and the dominant ones acquire and hold onto prime crocodile real estate; through tail propulsion in deeper water, salties can launch themselves out of the water three-quarters of their body lengths; they use this launch/leap technique to get at animals such as bats or monkeys on overhanging branches; prefer the ambush approach, lying very still in wait along the shoreline either submerged or just on the bank for potential prey; in attacking animals from the shoreline, the strike is rapid grabbing the victim with the jaws and taking it to the water, or if is a large animal perform the 'death roll' to make the animal lose its balance where it can then be dragged into water; either the jaw force, or drowning kills the prey; tremendous pressure force is present in their bite; an adult is capable of crushing the skull of an adult bovine when biting; when swimming, legs are held against the body as all propulsion is performed by the tail; will swim cruising at 0.9-1.3m/s or 2-3mph and is very capable of speed bursts up to 6.7-8.0m/s or 15-18mph; on land they can 'belly run' up to 11kph/7mph; due to bulkiness and short legs compared to body mass, salties cannot 'croc gallop' as other crocodile species do; due to tendencies to swim out to sea, individuals have been located in regions they are not native to; saltwater crocodiles have glands in the tongue to desalinate seawater; all crocodilians possess these glands, but are not fully functional or nonfunctional in various species; mating is only performed in water and is surprisingly passive; females lay 40-60 eggs in a mound nest made of vegetation on the banks; females will guard the eggs in anticipation of hatching around 100 days later; upon hatching the baby salties squeal where the female then attentively takes each one to the water's edge; during hatching, the mother may sometimes roll unhatched eggs gently around her tongue to facilitate hatching; for the next 8 months the young will live together in a group called a creche guarded by the female; in the 1940s salties were extensively hunted for their choice hides, but populations have rebounded since.

Special Note: Saltwater crocodiles probably have killed more people than any other wild animal. No matter of our interpretation of life's ranking, to a salty, humans are simply another mammal food item and they could care less about the protections afforded by our deities.

On February 19, 1945, during the ending of WWII, the Japanese were retreating inland into swampland from advancing British soldiers on Ramree Island. The Japanese were encircled on the small island off the coast of Burma (Myanmar) and had no where to go. On that day's fateful night, 400 Japanese soldiers were killed by saltwater crocodiles in the mangrove swamp which was home to thousands of the reptiles.

With their ambush attack methods, salties are very dangerous to humans and the utmost care should be conducted when in their environment; for in there element, we are not the top predator...they are...

1. American crocodile ~ C. acutus

American Crocodile
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: Crocodylus acutus

Length: Ave: 4m/13ft; Record - 5.2m/17ft from Tarcoles River in Costa Rica
Weight: Ave: 382kg/840lbs
Longevity: 50-70 yrs.
Name Origin: Crocodylus acutus - Greek ~ krokodeilos literally meaning 'pebble worm' referring to appearance; Latin ~ acutus meaning 'pointed' in reference to shape of snout.

Distribution: The American crocodile is widespread in the Americas; from the southern tip of Florida the range extends southward into the Caribbean islands, Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and northwards up along Mexico's Pacific coastline, all of Central America and along the coastlines of Ecuador, Columbia and Venezuela; inhabits freshwater rivers and swamps, coastal lagoons, brackish coastal waters in mangrove marshes and at sea; the landlocked and hypersaline lake, Lago Enriquillo of the Dominican Republic is the largest lake in the Caribbean and lowest point of any oceanic island lake sitting 40m/131ft below sea level; the largest population of American crocs inhabit this super salty lake. Global warming is having its impact on the American crocodile, in particular in the Florida Everglades; inundation of freshwater by rising seawater may not affect adults, but saltwater will destroy incubating eggs and juveniles have a low tolerance to saltwater; also sex is determined by temperature; rising temperatures will affect sex ratios or destroy the eggs outright, USA populations most probably derived from crocodiles crossing the Florida Straits from Cuba during the last ice age with lower 300 foot sea levels; once established in North America, branched all the way down the Gulf coastline and cohabited with the American alligator; in the U.S. strays have been reported as far north as South Carolina.

Description: As in all crocodiles the eyes, ears and nostrils are situated atop the head to sense surroundings and for ambush attacks while the body is submerged; has a sharp pointed snout and silvery eye irises; having an overall pale gray or olive brown in coloration, lends to camouflage while floating just submerged appearing as a waterlogged log; has a tough scaly hide protected with rows of ossified scutes (scales); eyes are protected by nicitating membranes (third eyelid) and in addition possesses lacrimal glands for producing tears, thus the origin of the phrase, "cryin' crocodile tears"; there are no subspecies.

2. C. acutus feeding on favored prey

Diet: Throughout life the main diet consists of fish; its fish diet on occasion is complimented with small mammals, birds, turtles, snails, frogs, crabs and carrion; they are opportunistic and if an uncommon encounter with an animal that is normally not pursued it may take it, like larger mammals; juveniles eat invertebrates, small amphibians and fish; juvenile predators are raccoons and alligators in the U.S., larger fish turtles and snakes also take juveniles.

3. C. acutus basking with open mouth

Habits: Is one of the larger crocodiles, but shows less aggression than the saltwater and Nile crocodiles, though on occasion have attacked and killed humans; in South America, an Amercian croc skull was found and measured at 72.6cm/28.6in; in proportion to croc body sizes the male croc, in which the skull belonged to would have been 6.70m/22ft; in saltier waters, these crocs will osmoregulate to keep body fluids from being salinized; in hunting fish this croc can reach swimming speeds of 32km/hr or 20mph by swimming with not only the tail but body in lateral sinusoidal wave movement; on land using the 'high walk' with straightened legs and body not dragging the ground, can achieve short bursts of 16km/hr or 10mph; will travel inland long distances inland in search of suitable habitat; can go two months without eating; prefers basking alone and with mouth agape; courtship is long-lasting, sometimes for a period of two months; female builds nest during the dry season due to fact that flooding destroys eggs; normally builds nests in holes in favorable sand banks above waterline; if suitable nest sites aren't available, the female is innovative enough to make a nest mound with whatever vegetative material is available; after nest is built normally 30-60 eggs are laid; parental care for the incubating site is mixed from very little of it, to extreme care, even building a burrow next to the nest to stay next to the eggs; eggs hatch normally in coincidence with an oncoming rainy season for a region, which is around 90-100 days after being laid; hatchlings will bark alerting the female, who will aid in hatching by gently cracking the egg; female takes the hatchlings to water's edge and tends to them for only a few days as the juveniles disperse and the female abandons them; where the American croc's range overlaps with the American gator's, the croc is more tolerant of the saltier environs where the gator is more tolerant of the colder regions aiding the two crocodilians to be more dominant in the respective environments; this crocodile is listed as threatened.

Vulnerable (2.3) IUCN

1. G. gangeticus ~ gharial or gavial

Gharial or Gavial
Family: Gavialidae
Genus: Gavialis

Species: Gavialis gangeticus

Length: ♂ ~ 4-4.5m/13-15ft, up to 6m/19.7ft; ♀ ~ 3.5-4m/11.5-13ft.

Weight: 159-181kg/350-400lbs.
Longevity: Unknown; estimates are 40-60 yrs; large size and slow maturity rate lead to longer life spans perhaps up to 70-100 yrs.

Name Origin: Gavialis gangeticus ~ Gavialis is a corrupted form of the Hindi word, gharyial meaning 'crocodile;' gangeticus means 'of the Ganges River' where the Latin icus means 'belonging to;' 'gavial' is a westerner mispronunciation and misspelling of the word 'gharial' rooted from the Hindi word, 'ghariyal' in reference to the ghara (nose protuberance) which means 'mud pot'.

Distribution: North Indian subcontinent; former range included not only India and Nepal, but also the extirpated populations of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar and Pakistan; remaining populations are found in India in the Chambal, Gitwa, Mahanadi and Son rivers; Under 50 in population, non-breeding individuals are found in the Indian rivers of Brahmaputra, Ken, Ramgenga and the Yamuna; in Nepal, they are found in the Narayani/Rapti River; under thirty adult non-breeding individuals are in the Nepalese rivers of Babai, Karnali and the Koshi; gharials prefer deeper fast flowing rivers, but congregate on seasonally exposed sandbanks to bask and rest.

Description: Gavialidae is the most ancient family of extant crocodilians with ancestry dating back to the Cenozoic 65 mya; most prominent feature is the narrowest and longest snout possessed by crocodilians; the snout becomes longer and narrower in aging; the elongated snout has jaws rimmed with 106-110 sharp interlocking teeth; is second largest extant crocodilian behind Crocodylus porosus; with a laterally compressed tail and webbed hind feet are the most aquatic crocodilian; cannot walk on land; leg musculature cannot raise the body off surface, so belly crawls on land; can rapidly belly crawl when threatened; bulbous snout protuberance in males is composed of cartilaginous knobby material; prevention of water entry into the

2. Gharial (Gavial) snout

ear canals while submerged is performed by involuntary muscles that automatically close off the canals under water pressure; coloration is from a mid-lighter gray to darker olive gray with dark bands along back and tail; no subspecies.

Diet: Is almost exclusively piscivorous (eats fish); on occasion water/shore birds are taken and carrion consumed; human remains have been found as contents inside gharial stomachs, but this is not due to hunting humans as prey, but rather gharials acting as scavengers in eating corpses produced by the Hindi funeral ritual of cremating bodies, then sending them afloat down river; with the long narrow snout there is no advantage to stalking large mammal prey; juveniles prey on insects, tadpoles and smaller fish and frogs; besides hatchlings being preyed on by larger reptiles, birds and fish, adult gharials have no predator except man; aggressive encounters where gharial habitat overlaps with the mugger crocodile, Crocodylus palustris may result in casualties; the aggressor is the mugger and is not in stalking gharials as prey, but in defense of favored basking spots.

Habits: Gharials leave water only to bask and nest; the narrow snout is so designed to snap up and hold struggling and slippery prey such as fish; narrow snout also is very efficient in maneuvering snatched fish prey to be swallowed; this crocodilian fishes with varying three strategies; 1) sit and wait approach- anterior body floating or submerged remains motionless on the lookout for fish to pass by; 2) rapid strike- while foraging when a fish is startled will rapidly swing snout to side and grab the fish, the narrow snout lessens drag allowing for one swift whip-like motion; 3) sweeping search- while swimming submerged, snout, head and front of body slowly sweeps through water back and forth in search of prey detected by DPR sensory receptors; gharials are social living in societal groups of one dominant male, numerous females and sub-adult males who the dominant adult male tolerates; other adult males are chased away; gharials mostly hear in subsonic ranges and low frequencies in which

3. G. gangeticus ~ ghara

the ghara vocalization ranges are produced in; the male ghara (snout protuberance) resonates vocalizations in deeper pitches as warnings to other males and in courtships; ghara resonance is produced by forcing exhaled air through the nostrils that are within the ghara; other sounds are hisses, buzzing, various types of groan bawling when injured and underwater jaw slapping conducted by both sexes during courtship; ghara is also a visual aid stimulus to females during courtship; reproduction cycle is dictated by hormones as well as day length and rainfall; pairs mate underwater for a good 30 minutes; female digs pitcher-shaped holes in sandbanks for nesting site at night, lays 12-60 eggs, then carefully covers them with loose unpacked sand; Female fiercely guards the nesting area allowing only her male mate to approach; when hatching begins, hatchlings emit grunts that alerts the mother to uncover them; she does not take the hatchlings to water, they find their own way; mother guards them for several weeks; as male is the only animal allowed by the female around the young, he is docile enough to allow hatchlings to ride his back; is listed as critically endangered due to human encroachment and fragmented populations.

Critically Endangered (3.1) IUCN

1. False Gharial ~ T. schlegelii

False Gharial
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Tomistoma

Species: Tomistoma schlegelii

Length: Averaged 3.5-5m/11.6-16.5ft; ♂ specimens can exceed 5.2m/17ft.

Weight: ♂ ~ 150-250kg/330-550lbs; ♀ ~ 90kg/200lbs.

Longevity: Unknown; estimations 40-60yrs; averaged captives' maximum lifespan - 24.7yrs.

Name Origin: Tomistoma schlegelii ~ Tomistoma is Greek meaning 'sharp mouth' derived from 'tomos' (sharp) + 'stoma' (mouth) in reference to slender jaws; schlegelii means 'of Schlegel' referring to Dutch zoologist discoverer, H. Schlegel (1804-1884).

2. T. scheleglii ~ in preferred habitat

Distribution: Found in Indonesia and Malaysia as restricted to 6 river systems in the islands of Borneo, Java, Kalimantan, Sumatra, possibly Sulawesi and the Malay Pennisula; has been extirpated from Thailand and possibly Vietnam; prefers freshwater habitats in peat swamps, lakes and slow moving rivers packed with debris and vegetation mats.

Description: Though paleontological morphology points to closer crocodile relationships (family: Crocdylidae), recent phylogenetic molecular and biochemical studies reveal a closer kindred to gavials (family: Gavialidae); is named false gharial or gavial in reference to both species' long narrow snout; false gharial snouts, though much more slender than other crocodilians, are a bit broader than gharial snouts and head tapers more into the snout than do gharials; 3 unique transverse rows of 2 enlarged nuchal (neck) scales are continuous with dorsal scales; post-occipatal are very indistinct or absent altogether; the typical crocodilian high ridge in upper corners above eyes is lacking in the false gharial; adult coloration remains fairly constant to juvenile coloration which is a chocolaty brown with black banding encircling the body & tail; there are no subspecies.

3. T. scheleglii ~ eating a turtle

Diet: Though snout shape is geared more towards a piscivorous diet, false gharials are a more generalist predator; captives have been observed to be inept in catching swift fish, but were superior in snapping up tossed food before hitting the water surface; even low flying grackles at the San Antonio Zoo were snatched by false gharials in midair; this suggests that natural food is more opportunistic for wild specimens in taking birds and mammals near water sources such as from low overhanging tree branches; in fact, in addition to fish, a very recent research conducted and concluded by biologists documented that larger vertebrates such as turtles, birds, fruit bats, monkeys and deer do make-up a good portion of the diet; due to retreating nature during human encounters, false gharials were considered timid towards humans, but at the end of 2008 a fisherman near his Kalimantan village was killed and consumed whole by a ±4m/13.2ft rogue female; earlier, remains of human parts were also found in a false gharial; juveniles diet consists of aquatic and land invertebrates and small fish.

4. T. scheleglii ~ on the lookout for prey

Habits: Density populations remain very low; once covered the whole of Indochina, Indonesia and Malaysia, but are now limited to fragmented pockets where currently found; is listed as currently endangered in becoming extinct due to human activity in burning and draining peat swamps, rain forest clearings, fish net drownings and the skin trade; except for man, adult false gharials are the apex predator in their habitat range; occasionally found basking communally but normally is not social and stays clear of each other; during breeding season though, in breeding pools multiple males are tolerant of each other as long as there are multiple females coexisting at the site; females are late to sexually mature in becoming fertile only once reaching lengths of 2.5-3m/8.25-9.9ft; females build mounds of mud, peat and vegetation debris, then lays a clutch of 20-60 eggs; false gharial eggs are the largest of all extant crocodilians; once laying, the female abandons the nesting mound and will not perform any parental care from guarding the nest to assisting and protecting the hatchlings; this results in high mortality rates for juveniles due to predation; the false gharial is threatened.

Endangered (3.1) IUCN

Turtles:

Turtles, tortoises and terrapins...what is the difference? First off, here in the states they are all three turtles; tortoises and terrapins are just special kinds of turtles. Other than just anatomy, the differences extend into habitat on what type of environment certain species live in and how they make use of it.

Turtles are primarily aquatic spending most of their lives in water and are equipped with webbed feet or flippers. Venturing on land usually is only to bask or lay eggs.

Tortoises are strictly terrestrial with short sturdy legs for firm and steadied walking. Tortoises live in drier terrain and will burrow or go underground when it gets too hot.

Terrapins (of Algonquian origin meaning: 'little turtle') split their amount of time both in water and on land, but are always near a water source.

Chelonia, sometimes listed as a superorder in classifications uniting turtles, tortoises, terrapins with the proto-turtle, Australochelyes, is mainly used for grouping extant turtles under Testudines as the order representing chelonian species along with all extinct turtle lines. This can be confusing, for in a few classification schemes, Chelonia and Testudines are listed side-by-side as one interchangeable order.

Turtles, an ancient lineage for an extant group, first appeared during the Triassic ~220 mya. Unfortunately today, they appear to be declining and on their way out. Turtle specimens can still be found today, pretty much anywhere so we take them for granted. If turtles had become extinct long ago though, we would marvel at these distinctive vertebrates that took their home with them everywhere they went.

The shell of a turtle has diagnostic features where the vertebrae, ribs and portions of the pectoral girdle are fused to the dorsal shell known as the carapace. The bottom half of the shell is the plastron. With this arrangement the pectoral and pelvic girdles lie within the ribcage, a design not seen in any other vertebrate.

The skull of a turtle is also unique among amniotes. Being the only extant vertebrate with an anapsid skull, they lack a temporal fenestra. Turtles have no teeth which are replaced by a keratinous beak. Also unique only in turtles is the orientation of the jaw adductor muscles to the cranium which is angled passing over a specialized trochlea, a boney structure acting as a pulley assemblage.

There is no final conclusion yet between two main arguments among paleontologists regarding the origin and relationships of turtles to other amniotes. One side considers turtles to have come from a direct ancestral line of anapsids. The other counters that the anapsid skull in turtles evolved as a secondary condition in convergent evolution from original diapsid ancestory skull morphology.

1. Odontochelys semitestacea ~220mya

Found in Triassic strata dated 220 mya, three fossils of Odontochelys were excavated from marine deposits in China. The species, Odontochelys semitestacea is the earliest known turtle. The species name literally means 'toothed turtle with a half shell'. Unlike all extant turtles with only a horny beak, Odontochelys possessed teeth embedded in the upper and lower jaws. Also in contrast to all extinct and extant turtle species, this turtle only had a ventral plastron; where a dorsal carapace was absent. Instead of a solid carapace, Odontochelys' dorsum featured broadened ribs like those found in modern-day turtle embryos before the developing transition to ossified plates that make-up the carapace.

In addition to differences, the Odontochelys skull was far more elongated pre-orbitally as in front of the eyes. In proportion to the body the tail was much longer, the transverse processes were not fused as in all other turtles and the point of articulation between the dorsal ribs and the vertebra were decidedly varying. Also, processes of the scapula (shoulder blade) known as an acrimon that is an anatomical feature articulating with the clavicle (collar bone) is lacking.

With these primitive turtle features, Odontochelys does appear to be a transitional phase, but living in coastal sea waters, this carapace-less turtle was a descendent from a much older line of fully shelled land living ancestry. Perhaps the lack of a carapace is due to a reversal in turtle evolutionary steps in losing the top shell, opting instead to having the bony top dermally covered with oily flesh as witnessed in Dermochelys (leatherback sea turtles) of today.

2. Proganochelys quenstedtii ~210mya

The earliest known fully shelled turtle was Proganochelys hailing from the late Triassic 210 mya. Its overall appearance in life was much like modern day turtles in having no teeth but a horny beak and had the characteristic shell housing formed from bony plates. The plates comprising the carapace and plastron had the ribs fused together into a solid cage protecting internal organs. Though unlike modern species this turtle could not retract its spiny neck and had small denticles on the mouth's palate. It was 1m/3.3ft long.

All turtles are oviparous with the largest species laying spherical shaped eggs while the rest lay elongated eggs. All species lay eggs in burrows dug in sand or mud and there is no form of parental care after laid and covered. In some species, temperature during egg incubation determines sex, while in others, temperature has no role in sex determination and instead is parentally gene expressed.

As in other reptile member species, turtles shed skin in molting, but do not molt all at once. The shell scutes constitute part of the skin and in counting the rings formed in the smaller and older ones over the newer and larger scutes, in knowing how many times a particular species sheds in a year, it is possible to estimate ages.

When tortoises shed, a lot of dead skin accumulates into thick knobs or plates that will serve as protection to areas of the body outside the shell.

All turtles are ectotherms, however due to a high metabolic rate, leatherback sea turtles have a noticeably higher temperature than the surrounding ambient water. Being ectothermic and bulky presents poor pursuit movement, but carnivorous turtles can rapidly move the neck and snap the beak in quick motions.

Fully aquatic freshwater turtles have their eyes positioned closer to the top of the head while the land dwelling tortoises have eyes positioned to look downwards at what is just in front of them. Sea turtles have salt glands near their eyes that filters then excretes excess salt taken from seawater the animals drank. Turtle eyes in general have exceptional night vision due to a very large number of retina rod cells that also have range sensitivities from UVA to infra red.

All turtles breathe air with lungs, but with a rigid shell, they cannot breathe as other animals do. Instead of changing the volume of the chest cavity via expansion and contraction of the ribs, turtles employ buccal pumping by pulling air into the mouth which is then pushed into the lungs by oscillations of the bottom of the throat. Secondly, in much the same way as the muscular mammalian diaphragm works, abdominal muscles that cover the posterior opening of the shell contract increasing the internal volume of the shell which henceforth, draws air into the lungs.

Like aquatic amphibian species, aquatic turtles in northern regions hibernate in the mud bottoms of water bodies. To breathe and rid the body of built-up toxins is a bit of a marvel, but unlike amphibian skin that conducts cutaneous gas exchange, turtles have scales that stop permeation, so survive hibernation in another form. They do take advantage in the ability of water to absorb and store tremendous amounts of heat as compared to ambient cold air temperatures. They also take advantage of another aspect of water and that is once water temperatures go below 3.9 °C/39 °F, it rises. Therefore for a hibernating reptile, a maintained temperature of 3.9 °C/39 °F is quite comfortable.

This created temperature comfort zone is ideal, for warmer waters hold less dissolved oxygen and below freezing temperatures would create ice crystals that would pierce and rupture the hibernating turtle's cells, thus killing it.

Reducing metabolism from 40 heartbeats per 1 minute on a warm summer day down to 1 for every 10 minutes while hibernating is an ideal situation for addressing changed aerobic to anaerobic conditions.

To get at the water's dissolved oxygen, the throat cavity is lined with multitudes of minute blood vessels that have the capability to extract oxygen from water. In addition, the same arrangement of tissue vessels in thin walled sacs of the anus takes in dissolved oxygen. Slight pumping movements of water from the pharynx and anus take in the dissolved oxygen.

To combat the build-up of toxins and in particular lactic acid that would otherwise kill it by building up an elevated state of acidosis while hibernating, turtles have countered with calcium. By dissolving minute amounts of calcium from the shell and into the bloodstream, the calcium salts act as a buffer and neutralize the acid.

For the classification scheme followed here, turtles are under the one order, Testudienes, which in this fashion would then be under the superorder, Chelonia over the two suborders, Cryptodira and Pleurodira. These two suborder groups are defined by the mode of neck retraction. Pleurodiran (side neck) representatives retract by bringing the neck and head snug to the body in the gap between the carapace and plastron. The larger group of cryptodiran (hidden neck) species have the neck and head retracted by the bending of nuchal vertebrae into a vertical S-shape. Many cryptodires can totally retract the head into the shell.

In size, turtles are measured by shell length with extant turtles ranging from the male speckled padloper tortoise measuring 6-8cm/2.4-3.1in and weighing in at a mere 95-165g/3.4-5.8oz. to the leatherback sea turtle measuring 2m/6.6ft and weighing 900kg/2,000lbs. The largest turtle ever discovered so far is the extinct late Cretaceous marine sea turtle, Archelon ischyros that reached the length of 4.6m/15ft.

3. Archelon ischyros ~ 1902 photograph

There are 13 extant families supported by 97 genera and 401 species.

1. Stinkpot ~ S. odoratus

Stinkpot (Stinking Jim)
Family: Kenosternidae
Genus: Sternotherus
Species: Sternotherus odoratus

Length: 7.6-13.7cm/3-5.75in shell length
Weight: 65-95g/2.29-3.35oz

Longevity: ~55 yrs.
Name Origin: Sternotherus odoratus ~ Is Greek, sterno (chest) and thairos (hinged) in reference to hinged plastron; odoratus is Latin referring to odor produced by musk glands.

Distribution: North America, ranging from southern Ontario and coastal Maine down to all of Florida and west to central Texas, then back up north to southern Wisconsin; prefers quiet and slow moving shallow waters with soft muddy bottoms.

Description: Is a musk turtle and this stinker is also the skunk of the turtle world possessing 2 pairs of musk glands with 2 anteriorly and 2 posteriorly just under the border of the carapace; when disturbed the glands secrete a yellowish fluid that is malodorous and pungent smelling; besides deterring predation, the musk also acts as semiochemical cues in intraspecific communication associated with homesite philopatry, territoriality and sexual behavior as interpreted by the vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSN), which elicits encoded electrical signals; have 2 distinguishing yellow or beige stripes running across each side of the face and along the bottom and top of the nares ending at the slightly pointed beak; possesses fleshy barbels on the chin and throat for sensing bottom dwelling prey; unassuming domed carapace is black, gray or olive brown with 3 longitudinal keels; carapace is usually obscured from algae growth; in not covering the legs, plastron is small with a single inconspicuous anterior hinge; have long tail and neck; highly dimorphic with males having the longer and heavier tail that ends with a blunt horny nail while female's more tapered tail ends sharply pointed; 2 small patches of tilted scales located in the inner surface of male's hind legs is absent in females; skin between the seams of the plastron is more obvious in males; males are slightly larger; juvenile carapace is patterned with irregular dark streaks or spots; there are no subspecies.

2. A view of the plastron

Diet: More carnivorous than omnivorous, but will consume aquatic vegetation; juveniles strictly consume animal proteins; finds food by scent; normal diets consists of aquatic insects, tadpoles, snails, mussels that it can easily crack with its beak, crawdads, small fish and about anything else it can catch and eat; will also readily accept the carcasses of dead fish and has been known to scavenge dead mammals in or near water.

Habits: This turtle is an expert climber and can climb 90 degree tree trunks with strong and firm claw grips; likes to bask in overhanging tree branches above water and has been observed in overhanging branches more than 2m/7ft above water; once disturbed will drop immediately into the water; males are feisty and won't hesitate to bite with an extended neck allowing a jaw range reach to its hind limbs; primarily crepuscular and nocturnal, twilight hours and darkness is when it forages most walking or swimming on the bottom of shallow waters; is highly aquatic rarely if ever straying too far from water, for is very restrictive to overland travel; if kept dry for too long dehydrates quicker than most turtles; respires underwater through tongue; mates underwater in the spring whereupon the female lays 2-9 eggs in late spring or early summer in dugout sandy burrows, in shoreline rotting logs or piles of dead vegetation; nested eggs may lay in shade or in total sunshine in which temperature will dictate sexes; certain populations have communal nesting site; eggs hatch in late summer or early fall with hatchlings less than 1cm/0.4in; overwinters burrowed in the muddy water bottoms; when first capturing a wild stinking Jim, be prepared for the foul smell as they will secrete the musk; this turtle species is stable and not threatened.

1. Pig-nosed turtle ~ C. insculpta

Pig-nosed Turtle
Family: Carretochelyidae
Genus: Carretochelys
Species: Carretochelys insculpta

Length: 70cm/28in shell length
Weight: 20kg/44lbs
Longevity: Maximum 40 yrs.

Name Origin: Carretochelys insculpta ~ Carreto is Latin meaning 'carts' while chelys is Greek describing a lyre instrument that was made with tortoise shell; the Latin insculpta means 'engraved' or 'carved;' put all together is in reference to the flesh covered shell as 'carted engraved tortoise shell.'

Distribution: Most concentrated population is in southern Papua New Guinea with smaller ones in the Top- End of Australia and southern Irian Jaya, Indonesia; the Torres Strait was a land bridge among these land masses during the last interglacial age 5-18 thousand years ago; rising sea temperatures since have cut off the linking between populations, but not long enough in geological terms for the separated populations to begin evolving varying genotypes and morphologies; is found in streams, tributaries and rivers along with large permanent waterholes and lagoons; occasionally may be observed going beyond estuaries into coastal waters foraging.

Description: Most distinguishing feature is the long pig-like snout that is a prominent fleshy proboscis terminating as flat with two nostrils; instead of scutes the carapace is covered in thick leathery skin; a median keel is located on the anterior end of the carapace; with no flexible shell margin the peripheral bones are well developed and complete; as in sea turtles the legs are paddle-like acting as flippers with the feet fully enveloped in webbing; only 2 claws on each forelimb flipper extend past webbing; also has 2 small claws on hind feet; rather than a flat plate, the carapace is bony and dome shaped; the plastron is solid connected to the carapace by a resilient bony bridge on both sides; coloration ranges from grays to olive gray to brown; sexual dimorphism is not pronounced and can only be distinguished after 10 yrs. of age where the male has the longer and thicker tail; Carretochelyids once ranged worldwide but now are all extinct leaving the pig-nose as the only extant species in its family and genus; no subspecies.

2. Profile of the Pig-nosed

Diet: Is ostensibly 70% herbivorous consuming aquatic plants along with the fruits, flowers, leaves and roots of river bank trees; has a tendency to be omnivorous when crustaceans, molluscs and insects are available; also has been observed acting as a scavenger on the carcasses of larger mammals, like kangaroos that died in the water; juveniles rely more on animal protein consuming aquatic insects & their larvae, worms and carrion; laid eggs were heavily preyed on by the yellow spotted monitor lizard, Varanus panoptes until the cane toad, Bufo marinus was introduced in 1935; this invasive toad was good for the threatened pig-nose for the toad reduced the population of the yellow spotted lizard drastically by preying on juveniles and killing the adults once ingesting the cane toads lethal bufotoxin.

Habits: The snout serves multiple purposes; it allows the turtle to snorkel breathe surface air while observing the underwater when the eyes are submerged; it also is equipped with sensory receptors that aids in locating food in turbid waters or sand; snout also behaves as a channel to the throat where special papillae are located that extract oxygen from the water; with flippers for legs the turtle is almost entirely aquatic; is most active nocturnally; as far as turtles go, exhibits much aggression towards one another and other turtle species; males have an aggressive nature and are more territorial than most turtles; during the cold dry seasons though, a more tolerant disposition is displayed in communal gatherings around thermal vents that line a lot of the rivers; sexual maturity is not reached until 14-16 yrs. old; females lay two clutches per season every two yrs; females will first go through a trial run digging out some sandy burrows for a nesting site, then wait; this instinctual behavior may have evolved in response to checking for egg predators; after a few days of waiting, she then in the dead of night, digs out of the sand banks with her hind flippers a cylindrical hole ~20cm/7.87in deep no more than .50m/2ft from the water's edge; after laying her clutch of 7-19 eggs, she carefully covers them, then leaves them to their own fate; this turtle species is threatened.

Vulnerable (3.1) IUCN

1. Smooth Softshell ~ A. mutica

Smooth Softshell
Family: Trionychidae
Genus: Apalone (formerly: Trionyx)
Species: Apalone mutica

Length: Carapace ~ ♂ 11.5-26.6cm/4.53-10.47in; ♀ 16.5-35.5cm/6.5-14in
Weight: Ave ~ 4.5-6kg/9.9-13.2lbs
Longevity: Not established, but estimates of over 20 yrs are possible in the wilds.

Name Origin: Apalone mutica ~ Apalos is Greek meaning 'soft' or 'tender' in reference to carapace; muticus is Latin for 'curtailed' or 'unarmed' in reference to lack of carapace as opposed to pimply texture ridge spines as found in Apalone spinifera.

Distribution: Native to temperate central and south-central USA with range extending from Maryland to New Mexico; once, range included Pennsylvania but is now extirpated from that state; prefers fast flowing streams and riverine systems with currents and clean sandy bottoms; believed to have arisen and occurred in N. America since Cretaceous Period.

Description: Formerly known as Trionyx muticus and is still what I like to refer to it as; since revisioning of world's softshell species, North American softshells have been designated under the genus heading, Apalone; overall, the scuteless carapace resembles a pancake or flapjacks as the breakfast item is called in the U.S. south; highly dimorphic in sex sizes; female is much larger than male; male has thicker tail than female; male anal vent is located near the tip of tail while in the female is located near the edge or just under the carapace; female has longer hind claws than males; body has no scutes; carapace lacking scutes covered totally in skin which most probably evolved to abate the gracefulness and agility of the softshell in water; due to rapid coordination and speed in swimming and grasping swift prey, scutes added weight, therefore interfered in swimming abilities, so lost scalation; delicate bone structure and narrow skull with long tubular nostrils; peripheral bones are greatly reduced or lacking causing leathery edging of carapace to flap; plastron is composed of cartilage and incompletely ossified; besides normal breathing of inhaling and exhaling through nostrils and mouth, practices anal and pharyngeal gas transfer and exchange through highly vascular papillae in the anus and throat area; overall coloration is from olive to olive gray or orange brown; carapace is either plain or with circular black marks, black spots and/or black streaks with a yellow or white edging along carapace; there are 2 subspecies, Apalone m. mutica & Apalone m. calvata.

There are three species of softshells in America; along with A. mutica, there is A. spinifera & A. ferox; the Florida softshell, Apalone ferox differs from the others in being the largest New World softshell, has a longitudinally wrinkled carapace, is olive yellow with gray spotting and tolerates brackish waters; the smooth softshell & spiny softshell, A. spinifera are symaptric over most of range and are similar in appearance with same coloration and carapace markings, but there are subtle physical differences; smooth softshell nostrils are evenly circular while the spiny is circular possessing a septal ridge through both nostrils; the spiny softshell carapace has small pimply protuberances with a sandpaper texture, while in addition the female spiny has fleshy spiking along the upper anterior of carapace edging; in the photos just below, the top photo is A. mutica displaying uninterrupted circular nostrils and a smooth carapace; the bottom photo is A. spinifera showing the round nostrils interrupted with the septal ridge and in being female exhibits spiking along the edges of the carapace.

Diet: Are strictly carnivorous and opportunistic in diet; is an ambush predator in water either lying in wait partially buried in sandy bottoms for the current to bring prey into close proximity where it rapidly extends neck and snaps food, or remains still usually for crawling prey then using pharyngeal gulping, sucks in prey; will also use their nose to seek food in sediment; on land it will actively hunt with nose sifting through ground litter, or if passes by carrion on land will wholly consume small dead animals or take its fill on larger ones; actively consumes a variety of organisms including fish, amphibians and their larvae, snails, insects, spiders, crayfish, small snakes, while the larger adults may take in mollusks; known to eat alga, berries and hard nuts.

2. Submerged in substrate

Habits: Though spends a lot of time submerged, buried and motionless, is a very nimble, agile and swift swimmer and fast terreain runner; is perhaps the fastest turtle to run on land; is considered aquatic spending most of its time in or near water; rarely goes beyond the shorelines; males and young prefer shallow waters while the larger female tends to go into deeper water; will bask on sandy banks and sandbars, but not on tree logs, large rocks or each other as most turtles like; remain submerged for extensive periods of time, extending the long neck for the nostrils to just break the surface for breath; to bury, it first pushes head into substrate pulling with forelimbs and pushing with hind limbs; as body is anteriorly tilted downward, it stirs up the sediment to fall on and cover body, leaving neck and head visible; communicates through visual and tactile cues; hibernates buried in underwater substrate; can be aggressive to each other and other animals in confined quarters, sometimes excessively killing fish long after eating their fill; mates in deep water with male coming up from behind to mount; swim in place for upwards to 20 minutes; non-receptive females are aggressive towards males; females are very alert, but wary and may abandon nesting grounds if disturbed; females dig a nest cavity in sandbanks with little vegetation by using their hind limbs averaging 22.5cm/9in; nests are no more than 18m/59.4ft from water source while normally 6m/19.8ft from water edge; egg clutches are dependent on female size where 1-25, sometimes up to 30 eggs are laid; incubation takes between 8-12 weeks; hatching usually occurs after dusk; hatchlings rely more on their claws than the egg tooth to break through the egg shell and are hatched with lipids to nourish them until they are ready to eat on their own; predation on softshell eggs are from parasitic fly larvae in the Sarcophaghidae family, fire ants, raccoons and skunks; hatchling predators are fish, shore birds, crows, snapping turtles and water snakes; fully grown adults have no natural predators except for man who considers their flesh a delicacy.

1. Asian narrow-headed ~ C. chitra

Asian Narrow-headed Softshell
Family: Trionchychidae
Genus: Chitra
Species: Chitra chitra

Length: Carapace ~ 110cm/3.61ft

Weight: 100kg/220.46lbs; record- 225kg/500lbs
Longevity: Not known, but estimates of over 80 yrs
Name origin: Chitra chitra ~ Chitra is Hindi meaning 'picture' or 'drawing' referring to carapace design.

Distribution: As an Asian softshell turtle, is found in river basins of south and central Java, east and south drainage systems of peninsular Malaysia, portions of Sumatran rivers and the northwest river basin of Thailand; prefers clean rivers with current and sandy bottoms.

2. Size comparison

Description: Boldly patterned carapace with stripes and swirls and as one of the world's largest freshwater turtle, easily field identifies this softshell; carapace pattern usually has a distinctive 'V' stripe above nuchal area with striping extending to neck and base of head; neck is long, but can be pulled in due to 7 neck vertebrae formed as wide & flat bones allowing joints to flex 170 degrees giving neck capability to fold in onto itself; carapace is rounded and sometimes slightly rounded; males have a distinguishable thicker & longer tail; possesses a long & narrow head with eyes located near tip of snout; overall carapace and flesh coloration light brown to yellowish brown with lighter pattern markings; plastron is wholly cream-colored to pinkish white; there is one subspecies, Chitra c. chitra and one nominal subspecies, C. c. javanensis.

Diet: Are carnivorous and primarily piscivorous with consumption of fish as major diet; on occasion will take freshwater shrimp, crustaceans and clams; as most softshells, lies submerged underneath river bed with head uncovered, rapidly extending neck and quickly snapping up passing prey with its jaws; may pharyngeal gulp in small prey while larger prey will take time once caught to swallow or even larger prey caught will kill then tear apart pieces of flesh.

3. Typical prey ambush position

4. C. chitra egg nest

Habits: Is diurnal and highly aquatic rarely venturing from the rapid waters it inhabits spending most of time in the deeper waters along steep banks buried in the sand bottoms with neck retracted; use large paddle-like feet that are fully webbed to scoop large amounts river bed substrate over carapace; are powerful swimmers; utilizes cutaneous respiration when submerged; rarely comes ashore and most probably is only the female to lay eggs in sandbanks; though no studies have been conducted, appears this animal may have the ability to change carapace color where in field studies, collected specimen with dark yellow carapaces, changed colors a few days later to light yellow at the research compound; on land walking gait is very deliberate and methodical; female during the dry season will dig a hole ~ 40cm/15.7in deep in sandbank at least 10m/33ft from river edge, then oviposit 60-200 round eggs; eggs primarily composed of carbon (~53%), and oxygen (~35%); consists of ~5.4% calcium in the form of aragonite; shrubbery inhibits female laying activity; appears through hatchery studies, temperature plays a very small role if any in sex determination; hatchlings emerge from nest 55-80 days from being laid; this animal is critically threatened due extensively to human activity through hunting, pet trade, pollution, habitat destruction and destroying of eggs for food, sand mining and dams releasing water flooding nesting sites.

Critically Endangered (2.3) IUCN

1. Platysternon megacephalum

Big-headed turtle

Family: Platysternidae (Emydidae) (Chelydridae)

Genus: Platysternon

Species: Platysternon megacephalum

Length: Carapace ~ 9.5-10.5cm/3.74-4.13in

Weight: 130-210g/4.6-7.4oz

Longevity: Maximum 25-28 yrs.

Name Origin: Platysternon megacephalum ~ Is all Greek platy 'broad' sternon 'chest' mega 'large' cephalus related to kephale meaning 'head;' altogether 'broad chested large head.'

Distribution: Throughout Southeast Asia from southern China to Myanmar (Burma); prefers fast flowing mountain streams filled with boulders and broken rock with water temperature ranges of 12-23 °C/53-72 °F.

Description: Trending is to list this turtle as monotypic pulling it from the family, Emydidae (pond turtle) and putting it under its own newly created family, Platysternidae; originally was listed under Chelydridae (snapping turtles); most distinctive morphology is the overtly large triangular shaped head; due to size head cannot be withdrawn into shell, so for protection, top and both sides of head are covered by 3 armored and bony scutes; unlike most turtles skull is solid bone; upper jaw is hooked with upper and lower jaw edges lined with a secondary toughened horny lining; only skin cheeks between jaws and skin ring surrounding eyes are left unprotected; with this head arrangement, gives a seeming appearance of the Ceratops dinosaurs; exceptionally muscular long thin tail is as long as body and is covered in large scales; carapace is flattened, somewhat rectangular squared off anteriorly and more rounded posteriorly; legs covered in large scales ending with slight toes possessing extra long strong claws; is capable of inflicting deep scratches; carapace coloration is yellowish brown to dark brown sometimes with radiating darker patterning while the plastron is usually yellow and has no hinge; this turtle shows no physical dimorphic features between sexes; 5 subspecies: Platysternon m. megacephalum, P. m. peguense, P. m. shiui, P. m. tristernalis & P. m. vogeli.

2. Big-headed turtle

Diet: May consume some plant material, but is considered fully carnivorous; with the strong beak will seize and tear up larger fish for manageable swallowing, crushes crustaceans and mollusks shells; insects and other arthropods also taken when opportunity arises.

3. Frontal head view

Habits: Is a superb climber and has been observed using its beak to grab and lift while utilizing the muscular tail for holding up weight and reach; with a somewhat reduced bridge between carapace and plastron allowing for a large range of limb motion, its heavier head placing center of gravity further forward than experienced in other turtles and with the aforementioned tail & beak adaptations, make this turtle well adept in climbing and walking; is crepuscular and nocturnal spending daytime burrowed in gravel underwater; is not a good swimmer, relies on strong claws to grasp onto rocks when traveling through rapid water; is partially terrestrial and will climb onto rocks or into trees near water source to occasionally bask; if prey is caught on land prefers to consume it in water; normal first line of defense is to drop the head protecting underside of chin & throat, tuck legs in and pull tail underneath plastron; can inflict a nasty bite with the double reinforced horny jaws; mating habits are unknown; 1-6 eggs are laid, each one at a time in a clutch; eggs are white, but unlike most turtle eggs are not round or spherical but like bird eggs in being ellipsoidal; due to extensive hunting by man for this turtle's meat as once was a common item in Asian marketplaces, is now rare to find in wilds and is listed as endangered.

Endangered (2.3) IUCN

1. Spine-necked swamp ~ A. spixii

Spine-necked Swamp Turtle

Family: Chelidae

Genus: Acanthochelys

Species: Acanthochelys spixii

Length: Carapace ~ 17cm/6.7in

Weight: ~ 520-884g/1.15-1.95lbs

Longevity: Not specifically known; ~ 30 yrs+

Name Origin: Acanthochelys spixii ~ acanthus is Latin from the Greek word, akanthos meaning 'point' or 'thorn' in reference to neck spines; chelys is Greek for 'turtle;' spixii is in honor of the German zoologist, Johann Baptist von Spix; altogether refers to 'thorned turtle of Spix.'

Distribution: Found in the South American countries in southern coastal portions of Brazil, Uruguay, northwestern regions of Argentine and possibly into southern Paraguay; prefers vegetative choke-filled slow moving or still waters as in ponds, swamps and small low current rivers with soft bottoms; may develop populations in roadside ditches with semi-permanent standing water.

2. Groove in carapace & nuchal spines

Description: Distinguishing feature of this side-neck turtle is the nuchal fleshy spines or tubercles on the dorsal and sides of the neck; spines on side decrease in size from spines on top; tubercles absent in hatchlings; has a somewhat flattened elliptical carapace with a longitudinal shallow medial groove; carapace groove is absent in juveniles; female plastron is flat where male's is more concave and longer; head is covered with varying sized scales arranged in 3 to 4 lateral rows above tympanum (eardrum); 2 small gray chin barbels; snout possesses unnotched jaws; anterior portion of limbs are covered in large scales; toes are webbed; tail is relatively short where in males tail is thicker and a bit longer; vent is beyond carapace rim in males and is beneath vent (cloaca) in females; overall carapace, bridge and plastron coloration is either very dark gray or black; flesh is a darker gray; hatchlings have orange to red spotting on plastron and flesh that is lost in older juvenile stages, no recognized subspecies.

3. Hatchling spotting

4. L. female R. male

Diet: This carnivorous turtle is highly an insectivore, eating many insects and their aquatic larvae; also is omnivorous in consuming certain aquatic vegetation; compliments diet with amphibian larvae, smaller and slower amphibians and snails; no matter size or age, insects play a big role in diet.

5. A. spixii swimming

6. Typical side-neck position

Habits: This semi-aquatic turtle prefers to hang out in water no more than 30cm/11.8in deep; even with strong leg muscles and toe webbing, is not a strong swimmer; will not venture into deep water unless disturbed or alarmed; does not hibernate in its range; body temperature is usually lower than ambient water or water bottom substrate suggesting a need to bask often, although most basking occurs floating in shallow water and not out onto the river banks, shore or overhanging logs; is a shy turtle and will not attempt to bite, but for defense emits an odor characteristic of wet alfalfa; mating is conducted in shallow water; courtship is initiated by male slowly approaching female face-to-face; if female is not respondent, she will snap at him forcing the male to withdraw, but not give up as once a few minutes elapse, he will repeat the process several times more until she relinquishes; once accepted the male moves to her rear sniffing her cloaca; if female remains receptive, he then mounts her carapace and clasps himself to female with his legs; once intromission occurs, within 30 seconds the male will begin bobbing the head ending in an extended neck with violent head jerking; females may exercise a form of obligate diapause in that fertilization of the eggs are delayed until favorable conditions arise; 5-12 spherical eggs are oviposited some distance away from water into a shallow dug hole; due to the still and shallow waters they inhabit, heavy growths of alga occur on many individuals. Populations of this turtle are mildly dropping.

Near Threatened (2.3) IUCN

1. Matamata ~ Chelus fimbriatus

Matamata
Family: Chelidae
Genus: Chelus
Species: Chelus fimbriatus

Length: Carapace ~ 45cm/18in
Weight: 15kg/33lbs
Longevity: Lifespan in wild unknown though speculation says 10.5 yrs; captives have lived ~ 36 yrs

Name Origin: Chelus fimbriatus ~ Chelus is Greek for 'turtle;' fimbriatus is Latin for 'fringed' in reference to flaps along sides of neck & head; altogether refers to 'skin flap turtle.'

Distribution: As a long neck member of the Chelidae family, represents Gondwana; when there were only 2 continents on Earth 510-250 mya, Gondwana was the southern while Laurasia was the northern; chelids evolved in Gondwana; the 2 land masses merged 250 mya to form the supercontinent Pangea only to later rip apart (180 mya due to continental drift) into pieces until eventually forming today's modern continents; most of the original Gondwana chelid distribution remained in the current southern hemisphere, while the matamata lineage evolved from the piece of ripped Gondwana land that is presently South America; no chelid family member is found outside original Gondwana land; matamata currently is found in the Amazon & Orinoco River basins of Brazil, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru & Venezuela; prefers shallow bottoms of stagnant to slow moving waters rich in tannin as found in its habitat of streams, rivers, oxbows, muddy lakes, swamps and semi to permanent pools; appears healthiest in slightly acidic waters.

Description: Most striking features is a flattened neck & triangular head with a very long widened mouth, long nose is tubular; beady small eyes located upwards towards snout, sides of long neck and head are fringed with skin flaps with head displaying many fleshy tubercles; possesses 3 chin barbels; neck is always longer than body vertebrae; webbed forelimbs have 5 claws and hind limbs are rudder shaped; is dimorphic in

2. Note long neck & chin barbels

that females are larger, scutes are conical and bear well defined growth rings; rough-scuted oblong carapace has serrated edging and is uniformly black or brown; reduced hingeless plastron is deeply notched in rear and along with narrow bridging is cremish yellow; adult flesh is highly variable in coloration as dependent on population, but generally range from grays through browns with or without darker color patterning on neck & head; throat is pinkish red in young, turning reddish brown in sub adults to darker dull buffs in adults; no subspecies recognized, but populations exhibit enough variability that perhaps later studies will conclude there are indeed distinct races.

Diet: Chiefly a piscivore ambushing fish as they swim by, but will take aquatic invertebrates.

Habits: Is nearly a permanently aquatic turtle rarely coming out of water and never ventures from the shorelines; is sedentary remaining motionless on shallow bottoms; coloration and physical body features camouflage and conceal the turtle against the water bottom backdrop littered with mud, leaves and overall brown coloration; is strictly carnivorous; performs sit and wait ambush approach for prey such as small fish to

3. Note tubular nose

swim past; when prey is near enough and has been followed by slowly raising head in prey's direction, rapidly lashes out by extending neck; in expanding throat and opening the wide mouth, a low pressure vacuum is created engulfing and sucking the prey into the mouth; once water is expelled, food is swallowed whole and live; apparently has learning ability as observed in captives raised in rectangular tanks or pools; some captives will exhibit a herding behavior by walking at an angle from one corner along its edge; this caused fish to swim to opposite corner herding together but becoming trapped between turtle and end of aquarium; from there the matamata engulfed as many as could catch; of course this herding strategy cannot be performed in a round enclosure and this type of behavior has never been observed in wilds

4. Note nostrils

where there is plenty of maneuvering space; it appears these turtles simply learned a hunting advantage in a water enclosure with edges and corners; breathes via snorkeling by extending head allowing just the tip of the nostrils to break surface, then quickly exhales and inhales new breath; possesses highly developed tympanums for detection in hearing; despite presence of tapetum lucidum as an aid in collecting light, eyes are senstive to bright light and give poor vision; skin flaps hold complex sensory nerves that aid in detecting motion; it is highly suspected the neck is innervated giving efficacy in detecting differentials in pressure waves; during courtship in water, males display by extending legs and with mouth agape lunges head towards female while giving movement to lateral flaps on head; the gravid female from late October to early December will lay a clutch of 12-28 round, hard but brittle eggs into a shallow burrow dug out in beaches or higher land along banks; incubation is 2-4 months; 6.35cm/2.5in hatchlings have a yellowish orange carapace and a reddish pink plastron that darkens as they age; this turtle species is not threatened, although many have been taken form the wild by collectors.

1. Spiny turtle ~ Heosemys spinosa

Spiny Turtle
Family: Geoemydidae
Genus: Heosyemys
Species: Heosyemys spinosa

Length: Carapace ~ 175-220mm/6.9-8.7in
Weight: 1.5-2.0kg/3.3-4.4lbs
Longevity: Maximum ~ 23 yrs
Name Origin: Heosemys spinosa ~ Heosemys references 'eastern turtle'; spinosa is Latin meaning 'thorn' referring to serrated carapace and spiny keel.

Distribution: Populations distributed throughout hilly areas of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar (formerly Burma), Philippines, Singapore and Thailand; prefers to be in and around vicinity of small streams in higher rain forest elevations up to 900m/2.970ft.

2.Sub adult with carapace spikes

3. Plastron

Description: Most distinguishing feature is the highly serrated carapace along the marginal scutes and the spiked pleural scutes running down the spine of carapace in sub adults in appearance as one common name alludes to: 'sunburst'; mature adults lose the high definition of spikes and serration as viewed in photo 1 of a grown adult male and female; plastron is rigid and generally hingeless, except in females during oviposition of rather large eggs, when kinetic movement allows posterior plastron lobe to accommodate the exiting of large eggs; a temporal arch is absent on the short skull; feet are slightly webbed, a pair of dorsal lateral sacs known as cloacal bursae are evident on adults projecting from wall of cloaca; carapace coloration is an overall brown to yellowish brown, plastron is buff colored with dark radiating stripes on each scute; legs are gray with yellow scale speckling while head is gray or brown with a yellow to orange spot on each side; no recognized subspecies.

4. Side view of bridge

Diet: Primarily herbivorous where juveniles strictly are; adults may compliment their diet around 5% with animal protein consuming worms, insects and perhaps the young of smaller vertebrates; appears to have a preference over fruit to other vegetative matter.

Habits: This semi-aquatic turtle will wander the forest floor near its stream, spending a considerable amount of time on land foraging; will rest under forest floor debris or burrowed in plants; has been observed remaining motionless for days and is probably an energy conservation strategy in response to its naturally cooler higher elevation environment; occasionally basks, but will avoid ambient high heat; mates during the winter months with rain initiating the male to respond to mating rituals; due to size, only 1-2 (on occasion 3) eggs are oviposited by the female, but up to three clutches a year on land under bark and other forest litter debris; ovipositing is done under the dark of night or in early morning crepuscular hours; to accommodate laying of large oblong white eggs, a kinetic hinge develops in female's abdominal scute temporarily fragmenting the inguinal scute; in kind, after 106-145 days of incubation, the hatchlings are large measuring from 55-63.2mm/2.2-2.5in; appears to be prone to internal parasite infestation, in particular nematodes and trematodes; this turtle is threatened.

Endangered (2.3) IUCN

1. Alligator snapper ~ M. temminckii

Alligator Snapper
Family: Chelydridae
Genus: Macrochelys
Species: Macrochelys temminckii

Length: Carapace ~ ave: 66cm/26in

Weight: Ave: 80kg/175lb; documented record: 113kg/249lbs

Longevity: Dependent upon ambient environmental conditions, varies from 20-70 yrs in the wild.

Name Origin: Macrochelys temminckii ~ Macro for 'big' is Greek and chelys is Latin for 'turtle;' temminckii is in honor of Coenraad J. Temminck, a zoologist and science director; altogether refers to, 'Temminck's large turtle.'

Distribution: From eastern-central Texas eastwards to northern Florida & southwest Georgia and up the Mississippi Valley northwards to Kansas, Iowa and extreme southwest Indiana; aquatic bottom dweller of lakes, swamps, bayous and canals throughout its range, but first choice is rivers.

Description: Is a turtle capable of inflicting a bite that will sever fingers; does not possess the strongest force/kg (lb) bite by a turtle, as its bite is a bit more than a human's, but it is the sheer size of the animal and its sharp chitinous jaws; contrary to popular belief, is not as closely related to the common snapper who belongs in the genus, Chelydra; is the only extant representative in the Macrochelys genus, but along with the extinct M. schmidti & M. auffenbergi, Macrochelys hails only from N. America; is the largest N. American freshwater turtle; has a huge head with strongly hooked jaws; eyes surrounded by thin filamentous growths resembling eyelashes; carapace is prominently keeled with an extra row of scutes along sides; plastron is small and cross-shaped; feet are oversized with webbing and well developed claws; overall coloration of flesh is gray & rust red; carapace is naturally brown, but usually darkened by algae growth; plastron is a lighter tan; there are no subspecies.

2. Note wide bite & strong beak

Diet: This turtle is not a picky eater, but primarily consumes any type fish that swims within striking distance; also consumes snails, mussels, crayfish. frogs, sirens, salamanders, snakes, other small turtles, alligator hatchlings, carrion, fruit, acorns and leafy aquatic plants; also has been known to subdue wading fowl; Aside from humans that hunt it for its meat and cross-shaped plastron, there are no natural enemies for adults; eggs and hatchlings are preyed upon by raccoons, rodents, birds, alligators and large fish.

Habits: The alligator snapper rarely exits the water preferring instead to remain on the water bottoms 40-50 minutes at a time before coming up for a breath of air; males on rare occasions however have been observed basking; exhibits dimorphism, but in this turtle's case, the adult males are larger than the females; while males reach the exceptional sizes, females normally top out at 23kg/50lbs; mature males' cloaca extends beyond carapace, while females' have cloaca at carapace edge or just underneath; hidden reproductive male organs make base of tail thicker than females; though will actively pursue prey, prefers to lie in wait and ambush by fishing; possesses a well camouflaged mouth with a fleshy pink vermiform (worm-like) appendage attached to tip of lower mouth; lying motionless on deep water bottoms with mouth wide open, will wriggle the appendage which acts as a lure in attracting unwary and curious prey; when close enough, the alligator snapper rapidly snaps up the unsuspecting prey and swallows whole; if too large the initial bite severs the prey and chunks will then be consumed; strong jaws & beak are efficient enough to cleanly slice through a wooden broom handle; is most active at night as it moves around on the water bottoms foraging; during daylight hours usually is

3. Size comparison

sedentary; under extremer temperatures will quit eating; in mating, the larger male mounts the female in water grasping her shell with all fours then inseminates her; when gravid and ready to lay, is the only time the female will leave water; venturing no more than 50m/160ft from the water's edge where she seeks out wet sand and digs a burrow laying anywhere from 8-52 eggs; female will reproduce once a year at best, while some lay only in alternate years; incubation lasts between 3.5-4.5 months with prevailing nest temperature determining sex; hatchlings look much the same as adults and once crawling out of the nest, scurry for the water's edge; sexual maturity is reached in 11-13 years; due to over hunting for human consumption, this turtle is threatened.

Vulnerable (2.3) IUCN

1. Aldabra tortoise ~ D. elephantina

Aldabra Tortoise
Family: Testudinidae
Genus: Dipsochelys
Species: Dipsochelys elephantina

Length: Carapace ~ ave. 120cm/47in
Weight: Ave ~ ♂ 250kg/550lbs; ♀ 150kg/330lbs; Fort Worth Zoo male is 360.25kg/ 794.2lbs
Longevity: Up to 155 yrs; record life span 255 yrs
Name Origin: Dipsochelys elephantina ~ Dipso is Greek meaning 'thirst;' chelys is Latin meaning 'turtle;' elephantina is in reference to the Latin word, elephantina meaning, 'pertaining to elephant;' altogether refers to, 'elephant-like thirsty turtle' in regards to lack of access to freshwater habitat, how it drinks through nostrils and huge size.

Distribution: Native to the Aldabra Atoll and Changu Island near Zanzibar; small populations exist on the islands of Bird, Cerf, Cousin, Cousine, Denis, Moenne & Silhouette in Central Seychelles; introduced to the Seychelles' granitic islands of Curieuse & Fregate and the islands of Mauritius and Reunion; roams the islands and beaches foraging in grasslands, scrub brush, mangrove swamps and coastal dunes; all giant tortoises hail from islands in the Indian & Pacific Oceans; they did not evolve into their huge sizes on these isolated islands as in insular giantism, but rather are the survivors of specie populations from continental mainlands where all remaining populations were wiped out by man; giant tortoises surprisingly float well and that is how they populated the oceanic islands; in time when man discovered these islands many giant tortoise species became extinct; in fact D. elephantina is the only surviving wild Indian Ocean species.

Description: Is one of the largest tortoises known whether extinct, extirpated or extant; carapace is thick domed; plastron is shorter than carapace but covers much of the ventral

2. Note developed tympanum

body; cervical scute is absent; robust elephantine limbs and pointed head are covered in scales; tympanums are well developed; telescopic neck is exceptionally long even for its size; possesses huge claws for burrowing; has a small tail; displays dimorphism with larger males ensuring ability to mount smaller female during copulation; male tails are longer (30cm/11.8in), female tails are 10cm/3.9in long; there has been much argument and frankly, much confusion on the scientific nomenclature of giant tortoises; normally, it is the common names that are numerous and the scientific name as one; but in this tortoise's case, the common name Aldabra tortoise, where 17 scientific names have been assigned to, the common name has far more universal recognition appeal than does the scientific nomenclature of this animal; currently, D. elephantina is also referred to as Dipsochelys dussumieri; two accepted scientific names can lead to confusion, but in times past, this tortoise was listed under 5 genera (Aldabrachelys, Dipsochelys, Geochelone, Megalochelys & Testudo) and 3

3. Aldabra tortoise copulating

species names (elephantina, dussumieri & gigantea); originally all giant tortoise species were listed as one, Testudo gigantea including the Pacific Galapagos giant tortoises; today, there are only 3 extant species with the other 2 being D. holoissa & D. arnoldi; both D. holoissa & arnoldi are no longer found in the wild with only around 5 specimens of D. holoissa in existence; there are no recognized subspecies.

Diet: Are almost wholly herbivorous, but have been observed eating carrion, even of other tortoises, though eating carcass may be an anomaly; consume all edible vegetation including grasses, shrubs, leaves, herbs, fruits and woody plant stems; up to 20 grasses & herbs have co-evolved into an interesting ground floor mat within tortoise territory called 'tortoise turf' due to tortoise grazing pressures; these plants evolved into dwarfed ground hugging strategies with seed production near the ground as opposed to plant tops in defense of tortoise's close cropping jaws; will roam coastlines seeking beached seashells where their sharp beaks make quick work of to swallow in maintaining calcium levels for their bones and shells.

4.Beach combing for sea shells

Habits: There are around 100,000 Aldabra tortoises, but are vulnerable to man's exploitative activities; has a peculiar way in obtaining water; first will acquire water from food, but when freahwater is available will drink it through their noses by sucking it in; pointed snout is better suited for getting nostrils into puddles than mouth; there is a vertical ridge within the nostrils that guide water down the throat and with an anchored soft tissue valve, blocks it from entering the olfactory lobe and pulmonary tract; in a small island and arid environment, this is an asset to survival; when leisurely eating from ground or resting, assumes a sprawled position with legs splayed appearing as dead; with long

5. Resting positions

neck will reach up into shrubbery to get at the leaves; vigorous search for food fells smaller trees and clears out pathways for other animals to use; it appears that tortoises on land where grasses and ground cover is more available, have a more domed carapace and where higher food is more available, the carapace is more flattened; is strictly diurnal, but will retire to burrows or plant shade during hottest period of day; shaded areas may be communal with a herd of tortoises sharing in the shade; when retiring to shaded retreats or burrows, observers remark that individual tortoises will follow the same path to preferred spot; when feeling threatened, aided by long necks can surprisingly strike and lash out swiftly in attempts to gain aggressive bites with their sharp beaks; during courtship as male mounts female, male will emit loud guttural grunts that may be heard up to 1km/1094yds away; during darkness, the only nocturnal activity of this tortoise, the gravid female will dig out a 30cm/11.81in nest in the sand and lay anywhere from 9-25 eggs; first time gravid females may lay only one egg; at times up to half may be infertile; once clutch of eggs are laid the female will then bury the nest and carefully level the sand to conceal location; unfortunately, the land crab, Cardisola carnifex, which is a herbivore, but no less relishes tortoise eggs, will detect the nest and destroy many eggs; after 3.5-7 months, the hatchlings emerge and are wholly black in coloration; sexual maturity age is reached between 15 & 25 years; this tortoise is threatened.

Vulnerable (3.1) IUCN

1. Flatback sea turtle ~ N. depressus

Flatback Sea Turtle
Family: Cheloniidae
Genus: Natator
Species: Natator depressus

Length: Carapace ~ 81-97cm/32-41in
Weight: 60-84kg/132-185lbs
Longevity: Up to 80 yrs
Name Origin: Natator depressus ~ Natator and depressus are Latin for 'swimmer' and 'flat' or 'flattened' respectively; altogether refers to 'flat back swimmer.'

Distribution: Endemic to northern Australian coastline and its islands and is restricted to waters over the continental shelf of northeastern Australia; within its habitat range prefers turbid inshore coastal waters of bays, coral beds and seagrass shallows; due to limited range is very vulnerable to changes in environment, pollution and man's exploits.

2. Note upturned carapace edges

Description: Before 1988, flatbacks were listed as a green turtle under the genus Chelonia; elliptical carapace is flattened, with upturned margins and 4 pairs of costal (lateral) scutes that are softer & thinner than in other sea turtles; the flexible but firm carapace scutes are waxy, covered by slimy skin aiding in streamlining for a swimming existence; head ending in a pointed beaked snout is covered by one pair of prefrontal scales and 3 postocular scales; as in all turtles the limbs cannot be retracted for protection into the shell housing; neck is also non-retractile; large scales cover dorsum of forelimbs with remaining forelimb areas and hind limbs covered in wrinkly skin; each paddle-like flippered limb displays one large claw; dimorphism in female being larger and male having longer tail due to reproductive organs; overall coloration of carapace is olive green to grayish with pale yellow margins on outer edging; plastron is wholly pale yellow; dorsal side of flippers are grayish with remaining limb area and body being pale yellow and whitish; hatchlings have distinct black edging around carapace scutes exhibiting a reticulated pattern; there are no subspecies.

Diet: Is carnivorous except for occasional consumption of seaweed; high protein intake diet is from eating benthic invertebrates such as soft corals, sea cucumbers, bryozoans; mollusks & crabs; also consumes prawns, jellyfish & squid; eggs and hatchlings are preyed upon by carnivorous mammals; shore & sea birds and monitor lizards; adult predators are saltwater crocodiles and larger sharks; all life stages have been preyed on by man.

Habits: Is highly marine aquatic; once male hatchlings hatch from egg and scramble towards the water they never return to land; females only do to lay eggs in a fashioned sand nest; due to physiology, can remain underwater longer than any other sea turtle; once breaking surface, rapidly replaces air in lungs with an explosive exhalation followed by a quick inhale; lungs are wholly adapted to this rapid exchange of spent body gases to atmospheric air preventing gases from boiling or being trapped during deep dives and long submergence; with high concentrations of red blood cells rich in oxygen, blood is shunted from low level oxygen tolerant tissue and pumped to vital areas during submergence; as in other sea turtles, sea reptiles & oceangoing seabirds, flatbacks make use of their food in obtaining fresh drinking water from food intake and possess salt glands that are modified tear ducts to metabolize, collect and secrete excess salt (see: 'The Toxin Scavenger' under Quick Takes for more detail); salt glands also keep sand out of female eyes when nesting on land; eyesight is exceptional in water but are shortsighted in ambient air conditions; has extremely slow maturation process with females becoming sexually mature ~30 years old; mating occurs in shallow waters; gravid female will crawl and drag herself onto the beach she was hatched from looking for a preferable site to dig a nest and lay her eggs in sand dunes or steep leeward beach slopes; females are very wary on land and if a disturbance

3. Note hatchling reticulate pattern

occurs may abandon nesting and go back to sea; in a tropical setting during first of summer months is most favorable time female comes to shore to lay 2-3 clutches of eggs usually in a small rookery every 2-4 years; once a suitable site is found she will dig a pit out using her front flippers; she will further, this time with hind flippers, hollow out an oval chamber at the bottom of pit; once finished, there she will proceed to lay a clutch of 50-70 eggs; the white eggs being the size of a billiard ball and weighing ~75g/2.65oz are the largest relative to adult size of all sea turtles; once eggs are laid, female then covers them initially with hind flippers; once fully covered she tamps down the sand with her plastron; to conceal any traces of the nest, finally she flings sand over the site with her front flippers; after the job is completed, she returns back to the sea; incubation is ~60 days; hatchlings emerge at night as the largest babies of all sea turtles and are most gifted hatchling & juvenile swimmer; seek out a low open horizon to guide them to the ocean; the iris of a baby flatback's eyes are blue; man's activities of crowded beaches and artificial lighting can disrupt the hatchling's plight to reach water, thus this turtle is threatened.

Vulnerable (3.1) IUCN

Amphisbaenians:
In discoursing this reptile group, 'amphisbaenian(s)' is accepted. Amphisbaenidae members are listed as 'amphisbaenids', while 'amphisbaena(s)' refers to the genus, Amphisbaena. A bit confusing, but please bear with me. Amphisbaenians under the largest reptile order, Squamata make-up the smallest suborder under Amphisbaenia. Once upon a time, amphisbaenians were listed under the suborder, Sauria as grouped with lizards. But with enough distinction in physiology, morphology and genetics, they were rightfully listed unto their own suborder. Except for one family with short but sturdy forelimbs supporting claws and an extra bone, this group is legless, is fossorial and really do not surface unless heavy rains occur saturating underground environs. Noted that Rhineuridae is sometimes a subset listed under the family, Amphisbaenidae as Rhinineurinae, the four Amphisbaenia families are:

Amphisbaenidae (true amphisbaenas; 148 species)
Trogonophidae (shortheaded amphisbaenas; 6 species)

1. A. fenestrata ~ head nor tail

Bipedidae (two-legged amphisbaenas; 4 species)
Rhineuridae (monotypic N. American specie)

As mentioned in being fossorial, these subterranean animals dubbed colloquially as 'worm lizards' have cylindrical elongate bodies with the tail tapered much like the head, hence the suborder name, Amphisbaenia. The term 'amphisbaena' is Greek that described a mythical snake-like creature bearing two heads on each end. In general, at first glance it is indeed difficult to tell which end is which on amphisbaenians. The skull bones are heavy, solid and partially fused to one another with the snout ending as spade shaped. All these physical traits are adaptations to an underground burrowing life where the animals utilize their head and skull features to shovel through ground while the streamlined body glides through the tunnelings.

As always, there are exceptions. A few amphibaenian genera and even some species within a genus have tails distinctly tapered in comparison to the head. There is also in complete contrast, examples where the tail bluntly ends in a stub making the head appear more tapered.

2. A. ridleyi ~ more tapered tail

3. A. anaemariae ~ blunt tail

The body is covered in squarish scales that are arranged in segmented rings coursing around the body. This aids in an underground existence in alleviating friction and lessening the chance of soil debris becoming entrapped within the scales. The vestigial eyes are hence, degenerated and appear as tiny black dots under an occular scale. Along with body shape, the scales make the amphisbaenian appear vermicular (segmented earthworm-like) in appearance.

With the sense of vision greatly reduced, amphisbaenians rely heavily on chemosensory in understanding their ambient surroundings. An olfactory vomeronasal organ known as Jacobson's organ is located on the roof of the mouth not only in these creatures, but all other reptiles and mammals. Where the organ is primarily used in pheromone detection with mammals, in reptiles, it is used to obtain a sense of what is occurring in their immediate surroundings.

4. Note bifurcated tongue

With a bifurcated (forked) tongue, air molecules are picked up on the extended tongue tips, brought back into the mouth and analyzed by the organ. This is a form of chemotaxis in responding to chemical cues. Having the tongue forked is an advantage in that paired receptor cells are far more efficient in detecting the direction of concentration of the air borne chemical molecules; in other words, finding the source of the smell. With only one tongue, it would be trial and error in determining the source; the hot and cold, cooler, warmer affect. Essentially, the forked tongue is acting as two and is far more efficient in splitting one tongue to perform multidirectional smell detection than it would be in having two tongues. Paired receptors in a forked tongue allows response movement in more directions than just straight forward, so in addition to chemotaxis, these reptiles perform tropotaxis.

All snakes and some lizards have bifurcated tongues, but it appears that its evolvement is unrelated and is the result of convergent evolution that has occurred up to five times in squamates. In addition to convergent evolution with an elongated cylindrical body, snakes have elongated the right lung and made the left lung diminutive, while in amphisbaenians, the left has been extended with a remnant right lung.

Although there is no tympanum, there still is an auditory canal. The typanum has been covered over and replaced by a scale to resonate underground sounds. In this way, the hearing canal is kept free of soil debris and parasites.

With no pterygoid (palatal) teeth, there is a distinctive median tooth in the upper jaw of all amphisbaenas, but there is contrast in species' teeth and arrangements.

Amphisbaenids generally have no more than eight spaced teeth in each of the lower and upper jaws that are pleurodont in dentition in that they are set in grooves fused to the inner surface of the jaw bones. The razor sharp teeth are interlocking when the mouth is closed exacting scissor-like motion. The interlocking of teeth aid in their biting and twisting to tear off chunks of flesh from their victims. An exception to this is A. ridleyi, where the teeth are more blunt accommodating its primary diet of snails in crushing the shell.

5. A. bakeri ~ note teeth

While bipedids and rhineurids possess pleurodoont dentition, their teeth are more conical. Trogonodontids dentition is acrodont whereby, without sockets the teeth are directly fused at the jawbone margins.

The skin fits loosely over the muscles of amphisbaenians and is attached to a vertebra in only a few places. This allows for more efficiency in the awkward movement dealt with in the various modes of tunneling.

Amphibaenids and rhineurids with rounder heads utilize a constant up and down sinusoidal motion and like a battering ram, press and disperse the tunneled soil to the sides of the burrow. Trogonophids prefer looser soils where their highly modified spade-shaped head plows through in short oscillating movements that forces and disperses soil from the tunneling's center outwards against the walls. Other species with shovel-shaped heads scoop up dirt as they're tunneling tossing it over the head and out of the way. Species with transversely flattened heads not only constantly move the head, but the body sideways in forcing openings. Finally, with five strongly anchored claws and an extended phalange bone on each forelimb, bipedids will either dig by clawing through, or at times will give the forelimbs a rest laying them alongside the body and begin digging with their head.

Investigations on Brazilian amphisbaenian's strong neck and main digging muscle, the longissimus dorsi running along the top of the back, were evaluated and testing measures were conducted on their lifting force led by biologist, Carlos Navas and Carlos Jared at the Brazilian, Instituto Butantan in 2004. Amphisbaenian neck strength turned out to be 24 Newtons (N) of force, that is equivalent to the capability of lifting more than 2kg/4.41lbs by this little creature. It was determined that even though the muscle fibers were strictly aerobic and not anerobic, they still had the strength to perform heavy lifts due to the long muscles' effective cross sectional surface area and power output. What makes this unusual, is that normally aerobic muscle tissue is only good for stamina and not strength. The power to lift heavy loads is usually due to anerobic muscle fiber.

Most species are 15.2cm/6in or less, though A. alba can grow over 85cm/33.5in, while the dimunitive Chirindia rondoense never exceeds 12cm/4.75in. Most are also oviparous typically laying between one to four large eggs, though the largest species may lay up to sixteen. Maternal care is exhibited and will stay at the nest site tending to the clutch. Females will sometimes lay the eggs in termite or ant nests where not only termite and ant larvae are, beetle larvae will at times exist there as well as a conveniently served meal for the hatchlings. This insect restaurant of sorts also maintains a constant temperature and affords protection from predators. A few species, such as Loveridgea ionidesi(i) are ovoviviparous in bearing live young while embryos have been observed in Leptosternon microcephalum and indeed Trogonophis wiegmanni is viviparous.

The body is segmented in annular rings. Except for Blanus cinereus in the family, Amphisbaenidae, all amphisbaenians have twice the number of annulus rings than they do vertebrae. B. cinereus' number of body annuli corresponds to the same number of vertebrae.

Amphisbaenians are carnivorous living primarily on earthworms, insects, insect larvae and a few other invertebrates. They have been known to accept carrion and Amphisbaena ridleyi during times of drought in its habitat has been observed to ascend plants and consume nectar.

The short tails are no more than 6% of the total length and with the exception of trogonophids, all species, just like some lizards, have the ability to drop their tails, although in the case of amphisbaenians, the tail cannot be replaced in growing back a new one.

Limited in range to tropical and subtropical settings, amphisbaenians are almost exclusively Gondawan in original range, but with bipedids and rhineurid in North America existing on lands that originated from land masses that was once a part of Laurasia.

Fossorial dispersal it is said, is very limited in its range, for subterranean animals cannot tunnel

6. lft.) A. alba ~ rt.) A. fulginosa

themselves all the way from one end of a continent to the opposite side. However, amphisbaenians may be a bit awkward on the surface of land in their accordion style fashion of locomotion, but they are adept to swimming. In utilizing serpentine undulation and in keeping the head well raised, they will readily take to water. Currents and even their strong swimming capabilities could afford more distant lands to populate. Though there have been no studies, much less extensive evaluations on amphibaenian aquatic mobility, perhaps there should be.

Genetic analyses reveal that amphisbaenians closest extant relatives are the lacertid lizards. Though lacertids and amphisbaenians diverged and went their separate ways, both groups have their origins emanating from a fossil recently found in Messel Pit, a fossil rich abandoned quarry near the town of Hesse, Germany. The nearly in perfect condition fossil, except for the missing tip of the tail, in question here belongs to Cryptolacerta hassiaca.

7. Cryptolacerta hassiaca

Cryptolacerta was an Eocene lizard that probably preferred remaining above ground hidden in forest floor litter and sometimes burrowing underground and making tunnels 47 mya. It most definitely was built for both lifestyles.

This 15.2cm/6in small creature had tiny eyes set in tiny sockets. The articulated skeleton and limbs, though short, are very lacertid-like while the reinforced skull was a prelude to the more heavier fused amphisbaenian skull.

Using the Cryptolacerta fossil findings as a basal phylogeny clad, lacertids and amphisbaenians sit on adjacent branchings with snakes far away in a distant branch. It verifies that the losing of limbs and the cylindrical body shape arose independently in snakes and amphisbaenians.

For amphisbaenians the fossil finds points out the fact that the animals first adapted to an underground and burrowing lifestyle due to the head structure. Only after the skull fully thickened and fused, did they begin to lose their legs in parallel reduction while elongating the body, furthering accommodation of a fossorial lifestyle.

Under the order Squamata, the suborder, Amphisbaenia may on a few occasions, in addition to the four families discussed here, list two more taken from Amphibaenidae as Hyporhinidae and Crythiosauridae.

NOTE: Unfortunately, research and documented literature is very limited and hard to come by on amphisbaenian species due to lack of studies of the elusive fossorial creatures. In particular under my format, there are many gaps, but as much as reliable information that could be obtained, it is presented below.

1. Iberian worm ~ B. cinereus

Iberian Worm Lizard
Family: Amphisbaenidae (Blanidae)
Genus: Blanus
Species: Blanus cinereus

Length: 16-30cm/5.9-11;.8in ♀ mean SVL~20.3cm/8in; ♂ mean SVL~19.1cm/7.5in
Weight: 7.2-9.8g/.25-.35oz
Longevity: Up to 16yrs
Name Origin: Blanus cinereus ~ Blanus an Old English derogatory colloquial phrase meaning, 'bleaching my dirty anus'; cinereus is New Latin meaning 'ash colored' that was derived from the Old Latin word, cinis meaning ashes or embers.

Distribution: This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula occurring in central & southern Spain and throughout Portugal; found from sea level to 1800m/5,940ft in piney woods preferring to remain primarily underground actively burrowing from February to November, while rest of the year may be found on the surface or lodged under rocks, loose stony soil or in surface tunneling of rotted out roots.

Description: With certain taxonomy zoologists, there is a push to list the genus, Blanus into

2. B. cinereus profile

its own family, Blanidae involving 5 species; trunk scales arranged in orderly rings around body with 110-125 body and 220-22 rings about the tail; body scales are rectangular in shape; front of head entailing one large prefrontal scale is used for burrowing; head & tail are slightly tapered; a skin fold is present where the head meets the body; atrophied eyes are covered over by epidermal tissue and may be able to distinguish shapes and form but indeed detects light variation and shadows; both dorsal and ventral sides are uniformly colored; young are normally a light pink where adults are from a pinkish violet to reddish brown; the snout is usually lighter in color; recently B. mettetali was delisted as a subspecies and listed as a species in its own right; currently there are no subspecies listed.

Diet: Consumes ants, termites and other small invertebrates in particular arthropods in larval stage; exhibits more of a specialized diet than generalist therefore is an active hunter; seeks out higher protein and fat diet (energy rich prey) bypassing certain ant species for more nutritious bearing ones; in captivity displays an aggressive predatory attitude consuming anything small enough, so may also be an opportunist in its diet; birds are the main predator taking individuals that have surfaced or when searching for worms may encounter and consume an Iberian worm lizard whether it was by chance mistake or intentional.

3. Blanus cinereus, note neck fold

Habits: The Iberian worm lizard is an active creature that warms itself up; regulates temperature by absorbing heat in soils and stone heated up by sun; seeks out prey and each other through sense of smell, touch and chemo signaling; both sexes possess precloacal glands that produce copious holocrine secretions, in particular during breeding season; when tunneling, chemical secretions are distributed up against the tunnel walls; these secretion trails help aid in sex determinations, intraspecific communication, home range and territorial recognition; chemical analysis has determined holocrine secretions are at least a cocktail of 29 chemicals ranging from lipophilic compounds, steroids, carboxylic acid, waxy esters to methyl ether

4. Defense clinging

and squalene; varying proportions of compounds are expressed in both sexes with squalene dominating in males; this is indicative of putative pheromone production; there are two main forms of defense posturing; one is lifting the relatively short tail displaying the cloaca while the other, if twigs are available, is to wrap themselves around it in a gripping manner; this defense method primarily is conducted towards birds that prey on them; though breeding has not been observed, it is conducted in late winter or early spring; in late spring, the oviparous female lays usually a single oval egg, though two are not uncommon underground or beneath rocks; parental care has not been observed; in their range, most locals consider them venomous and indiscriminately kill them; when picked up, they will not hesitate to bite, but the mouth and teeth are too small to do any tissue damage on humans; stresses are sequential loss of habitat and low birthrates though populations don't appear threatened.

1. Speckled worm ~ A. fuliginosa

Speckled Worm Lizard
Family: Amphisbaenidae
Genus: Amphisbaena
Species: Amphisbaena fuliginosa

Length: 30-45cm/12-18in total length (TL)
Weight: ~ 84.1g/2.97oz
Lifespan: Data on longevity in wilds or captives is not available.
Name Origin: Amphisbaena fuliginosa ~ Amphisbaena refers to the mythological account of a two-headed creature in ancient Greek literature, while in Latin, amphisbaena means 'to move in both ways'; fuliginosus is a Latin adjective describing a dark brown coloration; altogether refers to the, 'dark colored two-headed serpent'.

Distribution: A population is found on the island of Trinidad with dispersal in Central & South America in the countries of Panama, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname & Venezuela; prefers tropical-subtropical zones from zero to 363.6m/1200ft in elevation burrowing underneath broadleaf forests, grasslands, savannas & shrublands.

2. Darker form

Description: In scale counts, body annuli, preanal pores and coloration, there is much geographical variation in this species; in general with fused skull, head is relatively massive with a prominent snout; tail clavate (thickened at distal end); body annuli count ranges from 180-220 with autotomy annulus placed between fifth-seventh; preanal pores 6-10; nasal scales are large and in contact with second supralabial scale; prefrontal scales are moderate in size forming together a hexagonal configuration; there is only one subocular scale that may be split in certain specimens; vestigial eyes are visible but rudimentary; teeth are anguimorph in that they are like anguid lizards replacing teeth in rows as opposed to directly upwards from a rooted socket in the jaw; in overall coloration, head, body & tail background color is white or a very light yellow in some forms; irregardless of the speckled common name, the darker patterns are not speckles but more of a random variegated checkered effect and ranges in coloration from a very dark brown to purplish to black; head coloration frequently may only display the background white; due to physical variances, this species once was listed with 5 subspecies, but now they all have been elevated to species level; the former subspecies were, A. fuliginosa amazonica, A. f. bassleri, A. f. fuliginosa, A. f. varia & A. f. wiedi; currently there are no recognized subspecies.

4. Whiter form

Diet: Strictly carnivorous, this predator preys on any invertebrate it can overpower as it burrows through soils in search of food; invertebrates include insects, ground spiders, worms and larvae; very small vertebrates such as the small-eared shrew if encountered could also be possibly taken; with strong teeth and jaws, prey is clamped down on by the teeth, crunched, torn, eviscerated and consumed; prominent predators are the coral snakes, in particular the species Micrurus ancoralis.

Habits: A. fuliginosa originally is Amazonian radiating out into other regions from that point; although strictly fossorial, only surfacing during heavy rains, its ability to burrow proficiently and swim for kilometers at a time, has allowed this species to disperse successfully; from rainforest species there is broad morphological variation in other geographical forms; tail lengths and head width in relation to body lengths are regressing in species of the cerrado (tropical Brazilian savannas) and other more remote geographical locations distanced from

4. Crunching down a cricket

Amazonia; for terrain and burrowing mobility, concertina motion is preferred much like worms travel; in aquatic environments it utilizes the serpentene motion in swimming, oscillating in sinusoidal fashion; along with its dispersal abilities, A. fuliginosa tolerates different environments in crossing ecological barriers as well as physical barriers between two biomes; in being underground most of the time, relies heavily on chemoreception; as most amphisbaenians, it is nocturnal and is most active at night in foraging or finding mates; being oviparous, eggs are cleidoic in that there is little exchange with outside environment such as atmospheric gases or liquids; though very little is known of breeding habits, it appears eggs are laid in leaf litter layers rather than subterranean; due to this species successes in dispersal of established populations, it is not considered threatened.

1. White-bellied worm lizard ~ A. alba

White-Bellied Worm Lizard
Family: Amphisbaenidae
Genus: Amphisbaena
Species: Amphisbaena alba

Length: Ave. SVL ~ 29-82cm/11.4-32.3; max. total length (TL) up to 85cm/33.4in
Weight: ~ 185g/6.52oz
Longevity: Maximum life span ~ 15.1 yrs

Name Origin: Amphisbaena alba ~ Amphisbaena refers to the mythological account of a two-headed creature in ancient Greek literature, while in Latin, amphisbaena means 'to move in both ways'; alba comes from the Old English word, olbe rooted from the latin phrase, vestis alba meaning 'white vestment'; altogether refers to 'white-bellied two-headed serpent'.

Distribution: Widespread throughout South America, it is found in the tropical & Amazon jungles, tropical savannas (cerrados) and cultivated fields of Brazil and in the Andes tropical forests of countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru & Venezuela and in the Atlantic forests of Argentina, French Guiana, Guiana, Paraguay, Surinam & Uruguay; populations also are found in Panama and the island nation of Trinidad & Tobago in semi tropical forests.

2. Dorsal view of head

Description: A. alba is the longest and largest of all amphisbaenians, capable of reaching a length of 85cm/ 33.5in with a 5.1cm/2in body diameter width and weigh 210g/7.41oz; the head slightly tapers in triangular fashion with a rounded snout shaped for its style of burrowing; vestigial eyes are distinctive but rudimentary; teeth are anguimorph in that they are like anguid lizards replacing teeth in rows as opposed to directly upwards from a rooted socket in the jaw; 2-3 rows of replacement teeth are interdentally in line and migrate to replace the fused tooth that was damaged or lost; upper & lower jaw teeth are stout & conical and interlock; upper jaw possesses one large tooth with six smaller ones in upper jaw; typical of other amphisbaenians, scales form rings around the body; dorsal individual scales form small irregular rectangles while rectangular ventral scales are more indistinct appearing as long strips extending across ventrum; tail only makes up 6% of total length and

3. White ventrum

cannot break away from body as in other amphisbaenians; body annuli vary from 194-248 while tail displays 13-21; dorsal coloration is an overall yellowish cream color to an uniform reddish medium brown; dorsal coloration begins transition on sides to a ventral solid white; hatchlings, which may be as long as 120 mm/4.72in display peculiar blotched patterns; currently there are no recognized subspecies.

Diet: A. alba is considered a generalist in diet; it will eat anything it can tear up and swallow with its strong jaws and teeth from invertebrates, larvae, small vertebrates and even plant material; ground snakes are the primary predator with known predation by the yellow-tail cribo (Drymarchon c. corais).

Habits: A. alba is primarily nocturnal in foraging, but in its burrowing, may be active during diurnal periods; relies heavily on its hearing and smell receptors in identifying prey and communicating with its kind; snout scales pick up vibrations where signals are sent to the inner ear for analysis; smell is exceptional and can detect the leaf-cutter ant species, Atta cephalotes pheromones; this leaf-cutter ant forms deep subterranean galleries and has an end section where it dumps detritus material and dead ants; this heap pile is called a garbage tip; the amphisbaenid follows the pheromone trail to the garbage tips; what attracts the amphisbaenian there is a particular large beetle (Coelosis biloba) that lays eggs among the organic matter; particularly large & plump larvae hatch from the eggs feeding off the detritus material; A. alba are very fond of consuming these beetle grub; the amphisbaenian and beetle are facultative inquilines (beneficiaries of symbiotic relationships, but not wholly dependent upon) with the ants; there is a myriad array of associations in the unique symbiotic relationships; the ant and beetle are considered to be mutualism symbiosis in that both participants benefit in the beetle larvae having access to food and in the ant having its waste consumed; between the amphisbaenid and ant it is considered commnealism symbiosis where only one participant benefits due to the ant indirectly providing a source of beetle larva prey for A. alba; the relationship between amphisbaenid and beetle is parasitism symbiosis where one benefits at the expense of the other being consumed or harmed; also, there exists an obligate parasite tongue worm from the subclass, Pentastomida; this tongue worm utilizes the beetle larvae as its intermediate host in the larva supporting the parasite's eggs; A. alba serves as its definitive host where the tongue worm lives in its respiratory tract; with degenerative body parts, the tongue worm cannot exist freely and relies on its hosts for sustenance and

1. A. alba skull; Note: strong jaws & interlocking teeth

existence; A. alba is an astute burrower and with its strong jaws & teeth will crush, shred, tear apart and swallow any small animal it detects and comes in contact with while burrowing; the only time this amphisbaenid surfaces is during heavy rains, to seek the safety, shelter and food underneath leaf litter; for defense the animal is quite capable of inflicting wounding bites; on the ground surface, if cornered will slightly raise its tail and head, elevating just enough to expose both ends of white underbelly;

5. Surface defense posturing

this confuses an encircling predator as to which end is which; when burrowing, it is well adept to accelerate burrowing in making a hasty retreat; this amphisbaenid is oviparous seasonally laying clutch sizes of 8-16 oval eggs during the dry season; nest sites are underground and may use the sites of the attine ant colonies to deposit their eggs; the induced ambient humidity and temperature range in the ant sites are very conducive to the amphisbaenid's egg incubation; with one of the widest ranges in amphisbaenian distribution, A. alba total population is not considered threatened although localized communities are becoming rarer due to dam constructions and habitat destruction.

1. Zarudny's worm lizard ~ D. zarudnyi

Zarudny's Worm Lizard
Family: Trogonophidae
Genus: Diplometopon
Species: Diplometopon zarudnyi

Length: 10-23cm/3.9-9.1in total length (TL)
Weight: ~ 7.6g/0.26oz
Longevity: No data available
Name Origin: Diplometopon zarudnyi ~ Diplometopon is Greek derived from diploos meaning 'double' and the word of modern Greek, metopon meaning 'forehead' that was derived from the ancient Greek prefix, meta & suffix, ops; zarudnyi is in honor of the Ukranian naturalist, explorer & zoologist, Nikolai A. Zarudny; all together refers to, 'Zarudny's doubled forehead' amphisbaenian.

Distribution: Found in the coastal & inland aeolian sands of the Arabian Peninsula from 0-122m/0-400ft in W. Iran, S. Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, north central Saudi Arabia & the United Arab

2. Close-up of spaded head

Emirates.

Description: This amphisbaenian is monotypic within its genus; as in all trogonophids, the body is triangular in cross-section as opposed to being cylindrical in all other amphisbaenian family members; with its peculiar spade-shaped head D. zarudnyi is the most derived & divergent trogonophid in evolutionary trends; the skull has a strong craniofacial angulation with a rostral digging blade; the facial segment is highly foreshortened and flattened; the animal uses its type head for burrowing by oscillation (side-to-side movements) in dislodging soils to the sides of the tunneling walls; there is an extra-columella bone element lateral to the mandible specifically for picking up ground sound waves received and transmitted via the upper and

1. D. zarudnyi skull

lower jaw bones; prefrontal, posifrontal, postorbital, lacrimal & jugal skull bone elements are completely absent; facial portion of skull is ventrally curved and angled to cranial portion; possess an enlarged sternal plate; known as acrodont, teeth are not set in sockets, but rather consolidated with summit of alveolar ridge; teeth are stout, sharply tipped and recurved; eyes, covered by a clear scale, are vestigial but not as rudimentary as most other amphisbaenians; the very short tail is tapered to a point; unlike most amphisbaenians, caudal autotomy in that they cannot drop their tail; ventrum scales are smooth; body annuli number 178+; overall coloration is a light violet to pinkish with dorsal random brown spotting; there are no recognized subspecies.

Diet: Food consumption mainly consists of ants & termites or any other small arthropod and their larvae that are found in D. zarudnyi range; it is possible when available they may scavenge the corpses of larger animals as in a lab setting, they will readily tear flesh from a dead rat and consume it; potential predators are birds of prey and snakes.

4. Beginning to burrow

Habits: Are one of the most effective and efficient burrowers; in burrowing, they alternate a rotational movement of the head from side-to-side (oscillation); this constant motion simultaneously shaves off soil and packs it up against the wall; as the animal tunnels through in harder earth, it leaves its body's triangular impression; in loose desert sands, burrowing is incredibly expedient; on a hard smooth surface this amphisbaenian cannot travel due to lack of a gripping surface, so basically will squirm in place; is nocturnal and will surface at night in foraging for much longer periods than most amphisbaenians; metabolism can tolerate high temperatures as long as is not in direct sunlight; during hotter periods digs further down, but most of active time is spent on or just below the surface during night or cooler periods; will leave tracks in sand from last night's activity; travels on surface or in loose soils via lateral undulation or rectilinear locomotion; may also be found under rocks on surface during daylight; sound waves received

5. Leaving tracks

and transmitted through mandibles to the inner ear give this amphisbaenian exceptional auditory abilities in being able to detect and locate an ant or termites meters or yards away; alveolar cells found in the hinge regions of the cephalic integument are most developed in fossorial animals; for unknown reasons D. zarudnyi do not possess these cells; insemination may only briefly precede fertilization as the female shows no seminal crypts to store spermatozoa for future ovulation; are oviparous laying eggs underground; due to wide range and lack of invasive intrusions such as habitat destruction, this species has adapted well to its arid but hostile environment and is not considered threatened.

1. Angled worm lizard ~ A. anguliceps

Angled Worm Lizard
Family: Trogonophidae
Genus: Agamodon
Species: Agamodon anguliceps

Length: 10.16-20.32cm/4-8in snout-to vent length (SVL)
Weight: ~ 4-11g/.14-39oz
Longevity: No data available
Name Origin: Agamodon anguliceps ~ Agam is in reference to the Greek leader 'Agamemnom'; odon is in reference to the Greek word, odontos for 'tooth'; angul is Old English meaning 'angle' and ceps is Latin for 'head'; altogether refers to 'mighty toothed angle headed' amphisbaenian.

Distribution: Found in the Horn of Africa primarily in the country of Somalia, but also in Djibouti, Eritrea & Ethiopia; prefers coastal subtropical & tropical forests, but may also be found in hard compacted soils of arid grasslands, savannas & shrublands.

Description: As in all trogonophids body is triangular, but is sub-triangular and not as noticeably compressed; overall, body is shorter and thicker in comparison to other amphisbaenians; cephalic shield is planed and is a distinctive wedge on front of head having a large rostral scale forming an inverted U-shaped sharp ridge; head is strongly depressed with snout projected & truncated; nasal scale is moderate in size located between rostral, loreal and the 3 labial scales; there are no prefrontal, postfrontal, occipital, or supraoccular scales; acrodont teeth are anchylosed to parapet of jaws; eyes are distinct and functional to an extent; anywhere from 123-137 body annuli; 15-19 tail annuli; tail is very short and is tapered sharply to a pointed end; has one of the pointiest tails of all amphisbaenians; may be from 0 to 6 preanal pores; overall dorsum coloration is yellow shaded with very dark brown to deep maroonish blotching; ventrum is lite pink to purplish pink; currently there are 2 recognized subspecies; they are: A. a. anguliceps & A. a. immaculatus.

2. Body traits

Diet: Menu mostly consists of grubs, ants and termites, but other invertebrates are also readily accepted; gut samples have also been observed to contain the remnants of small vertebrates that were torn up into bite sizes to consume; it is not known in the wilds if it preys off small vertebrates or simply is an opportunist as a scavenger in consuming the carcass of a dead vertebrate it comes across; in caged lab environments, it has killed, bit off pieces of flesh and chewed up small vertebrates; potential predators are other ground reptiles, birds of prey and small mammal predators that inhabit its range.

Habits: With its unique head, is able to swiftly swim through loose sand or loamy soil by slicing through with its head oscillations; head gear can also slice through compact soils as well; while tunneling it braces itself with the backside for grip and torque to thrust the oscillating head forward; is nocturnal and vertically drills downward during daylight hours to around 30cm/11.81in; when dusk arrives travels upwards just below surface of ground to at times surface once darkness is full; when threatened will roll over exposing the purplish pink

1. Beginning the dig

underbelly and play dead; geared more for a fossorial lifestyle, when on the surface attempts to travel simply by imitating its tunneling techniques in moving its head back and forth with little body aid; needless to say is very clumsy on any surface; the eyes are one of the most functional amphisbaenian set for sight; there is less reduction in lenses than found in other species and there is evidence of efficacy in retinal organization; is the only known amphisbaenian to possess any remnants of eye muscles; there have been no reproductive studies nor evaluations on reproduction, but appears that it is oviparous; it is currently considered as not threatened, but with little exposure to population sizes, a more detailed study should be conducted before stating this species existence is healthy and not in a state of decline.

1. Checkerboard worm lizard

Checkerboard Worm Lizard
Family: Trogonophidae
Genus: Trogonophis
Species: Trogonophis wiegmanni

Length: 11.3-24cm/4.6-9.4in snout-to-vent length (SVL)
Weight: 5.7-14.5g/.20-.51oz
Longevity: ~ 4-7yrs

Name Origin: Trogonophis wiegmanni ~ Trogonophis is Latin derived from the Greek words, trogon meaning to 'gnaw' and ophis for 'serpent'; wiegmanni is in honor of the German zoologist, A. Fr. August Wiegmann (1802-1841); altogether refers to, 'Wiegmann's gnawing serpent'.

Distribution: Found on the Mediterranean Spanish islands of Ceuta, Chafarinas & Meililla and the North African countries of northern Algeria, all of Morocco and west-central Tunisia; prefers the habitat of moist soils covered by rock, stones and other ground cover in ecosystems of grasslands, oak & juniper forests, sand patches and steppes from 0-1900/0-6270ft asl.

Description: Is the only extant Trogonophidae representative to North Africa and currently is monotypic within its genus; having a triangular cross-section, body height is greater than width; ventrum is slightly concave forming a somewhat inverted U; T. wiegmanni is one of the more primitive amphisbaenians and the most primitive trogonophid; in head scalation, a large pentagonal rostral exists with 2 pairs of large cephalic plates; there are also 2 squarish frontals followed by 2 triangular postfrontals; loreal is normally separated from the small occular that is surrounded by 5-8 smaller plates; acrodont teeth are placed on the edge of jaw and are useful for not only tearing but chewing and gnawing; there is no evidence of dentition on pterygoid (a muscle process descending from sphenoid bone); eyes are distinct but rudimentary and covered by a clear or clouded scale; as the sphenodon, lacks alveolar cells found in hinge region of cephalic integument of all other lepidosaurians; this is peculiar, for these cells are most developed in burrowing species; all other amphisbaenians possess the cavum as lined with alveolar epithelium; tail is quite short and as in all trogonophids, does not display caudal

2. T. wiegmanni profile

autotomy (tail dropping); external nasal gland is huge and mainly intraconchal or shell shaped; is the only amphisbaenian to possess an epipterygoid, a bone or cartilage sitting upon the pterygoid bone found in the skulls of lizards; overall coloration of dorsum is a cream tone off-white with rectangular checkered pattern and speckled dark brown to black markings; ventrum also has dark checkered and speckled markings, but fewer in number over a lighter ground white; currently there are 2 subspecies in T. w. wiegmanni & T. w. elegans; subspecies morphology variation is essentially coloration with T. w. wiegmanni displaying a yellowish ground color and T. w. elegans in having a whitish gray to pink one; nomenclature listing may change as recent mtDNA analysis shows T. wiegmanni & T. w. wiegmanni as comparable, but T. w. elegans as genetically variable from the other two; once a specimen of T. w. wiegmanni is dropped in alcohol preservative, there is no color variation or distinction from T. wiegmanni; as for T. w. elegans, endemic to the Atlas Mountains of Morocco up to 1900m/6270ft, it has been isolated in a different environment of a much more temperate climate and wetter soils; different ecological demands in isolated zones

3. T. w. elegans; note color variance

indeed do lead in steps towards speciation; in the near future, T. w. elegans may be placed as a distinct species.

Diet: In search of prey below and above ground, primary diet consists of social and aggregated insects such as ants and termites; arthropod larvae and worms are also included; hard bodied insects may be consumed as well such as locusts and grasshoppers; predators are larger reptiles, carnivorous small mammals and birds of prey.

Habits: This amphisbaenian may be commonly found on the surface or just underneath rock or ground cover more so than most other species; is primarily nocturnal, but may be found on the

4. T. w. wiegmanni pair mating; note color

surface as active in daylight during inclement weather or breeding season; in frequenting the surface, they leave twisted tracks on soft soils; amphisbaenians are thigmotherms (an animal that draws heat into its its body from a heated object) obtaining heat through contact with soils and rocks; T. wiegmanni picks selected rocks to go under and maintain desirable body temperature ranges; even though there is not much deviation from rock temperatures in the morning and in the evening, they prefer regulating body temperature under rocks during the latter afternoon hours; this is a voluntary preference behavior exhibited by the reptile; in reaching body temperature stabilization, the amphisbaenian will then move on; juveniles appear to prefer reaching a higher body temperature than do adults; this form of body temperature maintenance is very similar to the

5. Neonate size comparison

diurnal epigeal (active above soil surface) lizards; chemical smell and auditory cues are essential in determining food sources, predator presence and inner species communication; ground vibration are constantly received and analyzed whether underground or above; so too chemoreception is constantly engaged; with the forked tongue picking up air molecules and sending the particles to the Jacobson's organ for evaluation, this amphisbaenian is consistently checking for ambient conditions and awareness; in its oscillation of the head in digging by slicing through soil, the tail is utilized as an anchor to give forward thrust; in being one of the more primitive amphisbaenians, remnants of the thoracic & pelvic bones are evident; appear to hibernate during colder months; male and female socially pair off and aggregate under rocks, though males never aggregate together, nor are females ever seen together; in mating during the dry season, the mated pair will entwine and love-bite each other just below and above the ground surface; T. wiegmanni is a viviparous reptile with the female giving birth in the early fall; the neonate born alive is around one-third the size of the adult; due to the largeness of the newborn, 1-3 are born, though there are reports of up to 5; due to physical size, this is hard to comprehend the female giving birth to five neonates where each are one-third her size; that would be one pregnant momma; females are found with neonates suggesting parental care; one of the most common amphisbaenians encountered, T. wiegmanni is not considered as threatened.

1. Ajolte ~ B. biporus

Ajolte
Family: Bipedidae
Genus: Bipes
Species: Bipes biporus

Length: 17-24cm/6.7-9.5in snout-to-vent length (SVL)
Weight: ~ 5.2g/.18oz
Longevity: 3.5 to possibly 7yrs in the wilds
Name Origin: Bipes biporus ~ Bipes is the Latin nominative for biped meaning 'two-footed'; bi is Latin for two and porus is also Latin derived from the Greek word poros meaning 'pore'; altogether refers to the 'double pored two-footed' amphisbaenian.

2. Note mole-like feet

Distribution: Endemic to western Baja California, Mexico found near surface in sandy soils.

Description: The immediate observation when viewing this amphisbaenian is that it has two forelimbs when all other amphisbaenians have none, except for members in the family, Bipedidae, who also possess a well developed pectoral girdle; attached to the short but stout limbs are five toes on each foot with powerful claws well equipped for digging through sandy substrate; another common name is Mexican mole lizard, for the large feet with claws appear similar to mole forelimbs; the genus Bipes, with 3 species is monotypic under Bipedidae; there was once listed 4 species, but Bipes alvarezi is no longer considered a distinct species and has been absorbed into Bipes canaliculatus exhibiting 4-5 toes, while the third bipedid is Bipes tridactylus that always has 3 toes on each foot; vestigial remnants of hind limbs and pelvic girdle are evident in osteological structure; bipedids are thin with B. biporus measuring only 6.5mm or a quarter of an inch around the midsection of the body; as vermiform (earthworm-like), skin is contiguous in segmentation; there are 2 dorsal annuli for each vertebrate; considerably less ventrum annuli than dorsum with presence of intercalated annuli on both dorsal & ventral surfaces; dorsal annuli: 242-261; caudal annuli of non-autotomized tails: 24-3; 27-32 dorsum segments per mid-body annulus; 24-30 ventrum segments per mid-body annulus; there exist 2 preanal pores that gives rise to the species name; caudal autotomy exists where tail breaks off between 6th & 10th caudal annulus; once tail is severed, no new tail is regrown, but severed area heals well; tail is 10% of body length; overall coloration is pink trending lighter as it ages; certain individuals display at times a bluish hue; there are no current subspecies.

Diet: Is a generalist predator, but primarily feasts upon ants & termites; will also take other ground dwelling arthropods including hard-bodied insects with chitenous exoskeletons such as beetles and spiders; grubs are also consumed and perhaps small lizards; all prey items taken are smaller than gap of the amphisbaenian's mouth; predation is rare for this strict fossorial amphisbaenian; predators are essentially slim snakes that can enter B. biporus tunnel systems such as Phyllorhynchus decurtatus or nocturnal snakes when B. biporus may surface, such as the rear-fanged night snake, Hypsiglena torquata.

3. Climbing ability

Habits: With two stout forelimbs and a prehensile tail that can hold a light grip, this amphisbaenian can climb; rarely though does it exit its self-constructed tunnels; is nocturnal and darkness is the only time it will uncommonly forage on the ground's surface and that is usually underneath ground debris such as rocks & fallen bark; on the ground surface, is clumsy in traveling flailing its short limbs in swimming stroke fashion; once entering a tunnel can make a hasty retreat from surface threats; in burrows travels by concertina & rectilinear locomotion via peristalsis movement of the segments; digging is performed by forelimbs with tunneling rarely reaching any deeper than 30.5cm/12in and is normally just below surface from 2.5-15.2cm/1-6in; is not a thermoregulator; during daytime usually rests in tunnels near shrubs, brush or posts, where it can migrate to shade or sunny points; for defense B. biporus voluntarily drops its tail by squeezing muscles along the weak point; detecting motion is vital for reptile predators and since the main predators are snakes, its severed tail will wiggle and bounce distracting its adversary and give time to attempt a retreat; 33% of males in a statistical population have caudal autotomized healed sites, where females are around 27%; whenever capturing prey from surface; will quickly drag it down a nearby tunnel for consumption; auditory conduction is unique

4. Exiting a tunnel

in B. biporus in that the columella does not have a cartilaginous or bony extracolumella passing laterally to the labial skin; instead terminal disk of columella ends in fibrous tissue beneath a deep fold of skin forming a nuchal constriction; arrangement gives B. biporus a high ranking among reptiles in sound detection; females are sexually active at 18.5cm/7.3in or at 45 months; breeds and lays eggs underground in tunnel system; females reproduce every other year and lay 1-4 eggs in July; mean clutch size per gravid female is 2.2; eggs hatch in late September with hatchlings at 90mm/3.54in in length gaining 20-60mm/.79-2.36in in length the first year; B. biporus is active throughout the year and seems unaffected from adverse weather such as long sustained droughts; this species is not considered as threatened.

1. Florida worm lizard ~ R. floridana

Florida Worm Lizard
Family: Rhineuridae
Genus: Rhineura
Species: Rhineura floridana

Length: 18-28cm/7-11in SVL; record: 40.6cm/16in
Weight: ~ 7.7-10.4g/.27-.37oz
Longevity: No data available
Name Origin: Rhineura floridana ~ Rhinos is Greek meaning 'nose' and eurys is also Greek meaning 'broad'; floridana refers to belonging to the state of Florida; altogether is in reference to the, 'Florida broad nosed' amphisbaenian.

Distribution: Is endemic within 28 counties of central to northern peninsular Florida with reported observations in a single locality of extreme southern Georgia in Lanier County; due to ancient divergence between southern central Lake Wales ridge populations to northern central ones, through mtDNA analysis there is evidence of geographical genetic structure variability to possibly suggest speciation; as the only extant member of Rhineuridae, the family is descended from amphisbaenians 60 mya in the Paleocene strata of Wyoming & northern plains of U.S.; rhineurids existed pre Miocene; since Miocene, 5-23 mya post Miocene fossils of rhineurids are only R. floridana found exclusively in Florida peninsula; prefers tunneling in dry soils beneath dry sand pine scrub and conifer woods.

Description: Highly segmented and with a wider and rounded posterior, appears as very

2. R. floridana is vermiform

vermiform (worm-like); tiny scales are arranged in rings creating the segmentation; closer inspection reveals a highly scaled head; adapted to an extreme fossorial lifestyle; has a hard scaled shovel-like head with a countersunk lower jaw to keep soil from entering mouth; snout is wedge-shaped; eyes are barely discernible underneath skin and scale; tail is covered by small cone-shaped tubercules; the cylindrical body measures no more than 7.9-9.7mm/.31-.38in with central portion of body no more than 12mm/.47in; internal ear is attached to sides of face to pick up and receive vibrations traversing through ground for analysis; coloration is pink to whitish pink in older specimens with head and tail at times exhibiting darker pinkish red patterns; there are currently no recognized subspecies.

Diet: Substantially subsists on ants and termites, but will take other ground dwelling invertebrates such as spiders, worms and insect larvae; slender burrowing snakes and birds are primary predators; birds of all sizes that specialize in searching for earthworms commonly unearth this amphisbaenian mistaking it for an earthworm.

3. Note: tail tubercules (bumps)

Habits: Is highly fossorial rarely surfacing; primary instance of surfacing is when heavy rains innundate soils forcing the reptile out of the ground; this gave rise to another colloquial and common name, 'thunderworm' by locals; it may emerge in numbers during thunder storms; on rare occasions without intimidation or enforcement, will poke their head out of a tunnel and evaluate the ambient surface with its forked tongue taking in molecule samples to be appraised by the Jacobson's organ located at roof of mouth; this act is very seldom and usually is acted out from underneath ground litter such as leaves; for grasping prey, one center tooth located in front of upper jaw is larger than the other teeth; covered by a single large premaxillary & parietal scale, the head is depressed with a projecting snout that the amphisbaenian uses to construct tunnels by forcing the snout and head into the soil moving the head in up and down motions,

4. Profile of head

thus packing soil away from its direction of movement; also, nasal passages are located on bottom of snout as opposed to normally being on top to keep soil debris out; whenever on or near surface, if threatened it backs into its tunnel; to elude disturbance, its slightly widened and flattened tail serves as a plug for any intruder to gain entrance into its tunnel; breeding and egg deposition occur underground; during mid to late summer, the female will lay 1-3 eggs in a burrow chamber; eggs hatch in early fall, with fully developed hatchlings around 10.2cm/4in; an extinct rhinureid, Rhineura hatcherii lived in what is now the South Dakota badlands 29-34 mya; it differed from R. floridana in having up to 7 maxillary and dentary teeth and also possessed a sagittal crest (a ridge of bone running lengthwise along mid-line atop the skull; R. floridana population is currently not considered threatened.

REPTILIAN PHOTO CREDITS:

DISCUSSION: 1. source: Wikipedia (German); 2. source: DK Images (2001); 3. Peter Bockman (derivitive work).

SPHENODONTS: 1. Nicola Nelson.

Sphenodont Species: 1. source: Mail Online (06/2007); 2. source: reptiles.net; 3. illustrator Nobu Tamura.

CROCODILIANS: 1. source: Worsley School; 2. source: Hbk33, based on Tomascastelazo, Postdblf, Greverod & Knilob of Flikr.

Crocodilian Species: A. mississippiensis- 1. source: aquaticcommunity.com; 2. Terri Jenkins (US Fish & Wildlife); 3. Brian Metts. A. sinesis- 1. John Thorbjarnarson; 2. Adam Britton. P. palpebrosus- 1. source: McDonald Wildlife Photography; 2. Daniel Heuclin; 3. Roger Le Guen; 4. Daniel Heuclin; 5 Adam Britton; 6. Marc van Roosmalen. C. yacare- 1. Francois Gohier; 2. J. Stolfi; 3. Pete Oxford; 4. Mark Jones. C. mindorensis- 1. M. VanWeerd; 2. source: Philippine Mindoro Hatchery & Conservation. C. porosus- 1. Saint Augustine Alligator Farm; 2. Sam Abev; 3. Indrek Urvet; 4. J. Patrick Fischer. C. acutus- 1. Gianfranco Lanzelti; 2. Tomas Castelazo; 3. Prof. Harry Messel. G. gangeticus- 1. Adam Jones; 2. Matei Bat' ha; 3. Justin Griffiths. T. schlegelii- 1. Gerald & Buff Corsi 2. Ruchira Somaweera; 3. Jean-Philippe Delobelle; 4. Haplochromis.

TURTLES: 1. illustrator Nobu Tampara; 2. illustrator Stanton F. Fink; 3. Frederic A. Lucas (1902).
Turtle Species: S. odoratus- 1. John White; 2. Laurent Lebois. C. insculpta- 1. Karelj (Czech Republic); 2. D. Parer & E. Parer-Cook. A. mutica- 1. Suzanne L. Collins; Composite Photo, Top & Bottom: Chris Smith; 2. Kathrin Holzer (Hobby Garten). C. chitra- 1. John C. Murphy; 2. courtesy of Malaysian Conservancy; 3. source: PhotoSynthesys.com; 4. Wachira Kitimasak PhD. P. megacephalum- 1. Cindy Yuen; 2. Zig Leszcznski; 3. Vladimir Motycka. A. spixii- 1. source: empireoftheturtle.com 2. courtesy of Gulf Coast Turtle & Tortoise Society 3. Stefano Reda 4. source: WWW.sauria.info 5. Richard Lunsford 6. Mario Sacramento. C. fimbriatus- 1. source: perpustakaan.blogspot.com 2. source: modn.konin.pl (Poland); 3. Jose Cassimiro; 4. source: infotortuga.com (DFA). H. spinosa- 1. Saed Cantas (source: Reptile forums UK); 2. source: empireoftheturtle.com; 3. courtesy of Satucita Freshwater Turtle conservation; 4. courtesy of Satucita Freshwater Turtle Conservation. M. temminckii- 1. source: Texasturtles.org; 2. Ranita Anita; 3. Mitch Ray source: Project Noah. D. elephantina- 1. source: visualphotos.com; 2. Vassil; 3. Stanislav Krejcik; 4. Ralph Nieuwbor; 5.Martin Harvey. N. depressus- 1& 2 Brett Leis; 3. Purpleturtle57

AMPHISBAENIANS: 1. source: kingsnake.com; 2. Ivan Sazima; 3. Cristiano Nogueira; 4. Dr. Zoltan Takacs; 5. source: kingsnake.com; 6. Gleomar F. Maschio, Ana Prudente, Tami Mott; 7. Johannes Muller.
Amphisbaenian species: B. cinereus- 1. Lars D. Bruun; 2. Frank Deschandol; 3. J. Gallego; 4. Jorge Martinez Huelves. A. fuliginosa- 1. Mark O'Shea; 2. Karl J. Franklin (UTA); 3. source: encyclopedia.mitrasites.com; 4. Christopher V. Anderson. A. alba- 1. Marina Marchezini; 2. source: The Herpetofauna of Trinidad & Tobago; 3. Jason & Jenna Weigner; 4. source: Digimorph.Org; 5. Jose Ramon Marrufo. D. zarudnyi- source: alsirhan.com; 2. Mark O'Shea; 3. source: Digimorph.Org; 4. Nate Kley; 5. S. Alfarraj, source: mekshat.com. A. anguliceps- 1. source: inseparabile.com (Italy) 2. H.G. Cogger & R.G. Zweifel; 3. source: englishclass.jp (Japan). T. wiegmanni- 1. Gabri Mtnez; 2.&3. Luis Garcia-Cardenete; 4. Milan Korinek; 5. Gabri Mtnez. B. biporus- 1. Theodore J. Papenfuss (1982); 2. source: bluechameleon.org; 3. courtesy of Universal Images Group; 4 Bill Love. Rhineura floridana- 1. Bill Love; 2. Kenneth Krysko; 3. Peter G. May; 4.source: superstock.com.

My daughter's Barbie conquered her fear of snakes...

4 comments:

Zoltan Andrew SimonJune 23, 2013 at 4:44 AM
I am looking for a smart expert about American crocodiles. Do they have pointed tongues, or, bifurcated tongues? Or, if American crocodiles do not have bifurcated or split tongues, which species of the reptiles have such tongues in the region of Florida or the Caribbean?
Thanks a million for your information.

Zoltan Andrew Simon (64), writer, historian
E-mail: zasimon@hotmail.com
(Red Deer, Canada)
AnonymousMarch 11, 2014 at 10:54 AM
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